RobbieS
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That was unnecessary and rude. You could have used a less offensive way to convey your views.
Muslim inventions that shaped the modern world
- Thread starter tamir
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That was unnecessary and rude. You could have used a less offensive way to convey your views.
hero
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Thats uncalled. deleted my post.
Invention of zero
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/0_(number)
The concept of zero as a number and not merely a symbol for separation is attributed to India where by the 9th century CE practical calculations were carried out using zero, which was treated like any other number, even in case of division.[9][10] The Indian scholar Pingala (circa 5th-2nd century BCE) used binary numbers in the form of short and long syllables (the latter equal in length to two short syllables), making it similar to Morse code.[11][12] He and his contemporary Indian scholars used the Sanskrit word śūnya to refer to zero or void.
In 498 CE, Indian mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata stated that "Sthanam sthanam dasa gunam" or place to place in ten times in value, which may be the origin of the modern decimal-based place value notation.[19]
Rules of Brahmagupta
The rules governing the use of zero appeared for the first time in Brahmagupta's book Brahmasputha Siddhanta (The Opening of the Universe),[23] written in 628. Here Brahmagupta considers not only zero, but negative numbers, and the algebraic rules for the elementary operations of arithmetic with such numbers. In some instances, his rules differ from the modern standard. Here are the rules of Brahmagupta:[23]
The sum of zero and a negative number is negative.
The sum of zero and a positive number is positive.
The sum of zero and zero is zero.
The sum of a positive and a negative is their difference; or, if their absolute values are equal, zero.
A positive or negative number when divided by zero is a fraction with the zero as denominator.
Zero divided by a negative or positive number is either zero or is expressed as a fraction with zero as numerator and the finite quantity as denominator.
Zero divided by zero is zero.
In saying zero divided by zero is zero, Brahmagupta differs from the modern position. Mathematicians normally do not assign a value to this, whereas computers and calculators sometimes assign NaN, which means "not a number." Moreover, non-zero positive or negative numbers when divided by zero are either assigned no value, or a value of unsigned infinity, positive infinity, or negative infinity. Once again, these assignments are not numbers, and are associated more with computer science than pure mathematics, where in most contexts no assignment is done
[edit] Decimal System
Historians trace modern numerals in most languages to the Brahmi numerals, which were in use around the middle of the third century BC.[3] The place value system, however, evolved later. The Brahmi numerals have been found in inscriptions in caves and on coins in regions near Pune, Mumbai, and Uttar Pradesh. These numerals (with slight variations) were in use over quite a long time span up to the 4th century AD[3].
During the Gupta period (early 4th century AD to the late 6th century AD), the Gupta numerals developed from the Brahmi numerals and were spread over large areas by the Gupta empire as they conquered territory [3]. Beginning around 7th century, the Gupta numerals evolved into the Nagari numerals.
History of the Hindu?Arabic numeral system - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
[edit] Positional notation
Further information: positional notation
There is indirect evidence that the Indians developed a positional number system as early as the first century CE[3]. The Bakhshali manuscript (c. 3d c. BCE) uses a place value system with a dot to denote the zero, which is called shunya-sthAna, "empty-place", and the same symbol is also used in algebraic expressions for the unknown (as in the canonical x in modern algebra). However, the date of the Bakhshali manuscript is hard to establish, and has been the subject of considerable debate. The oldest dated Indian document showing use of the modern place value form is a legal document dated 346 in the Chhedi calendar, which translates to 594 CE[3]. While some historians have claimed that the date on this document was a later forgery, it is not clear what might have motivated it, and it is generally accepted that enumeration using the place-value system was in common use in India by the end of the 6th century.[4]. Indian books dated to this period are able to denote numbers in the hundred thousands using a place value system.[5] Many other inscriptions have been found which are dated and make use of the place-value system for either the date or some other numbers within the text [3], although some historians claim these to also be forgeries.
In his seminal text of 499, Aryabhata devised a positional number system without a zero digit. He used the word "kha" for the zero position.[3]. Evidence suggests that a dot had been used in earlier Indian manuscripts to denote an empty place in positional notation. [1]. The same documents sometimes also used a dot to denote an unknown where we might use x. Later Indian mathematicians had names for zero in positional numbers yet had no symbol for it.
The use of zero in these positional systems are the final step to the system of numerals we are familiar with today. The first inscription showing the use of zero which is dated and is not disputed by any historian is the inscription at Gwalior dated 933 in the Vikrama calendar (876 CE.) [3][6].
The oldest known text to use zero is the Jain text from India entitled the Lokavibhaga , dated 458 AD.[7]
The first indubitable appearance of a symbol for zero appears in 876 in India on a stone tablet in Gwalior. Documents on copper plates, with the same small o in them, dated back as far as the sixth century AD, abound.[8]
[edit] Positional notation
Further information: positional notation
There is indirect evidence that the Indians developed a positional number system as early as the first century CE[3]. The Bakhshali manuscript (c. 3d c. BCE) uses a place value system with a dot to denote the zero, which is called shunya-sthAna, "empty-place", and the same symbol is also used in algebraic expressions for the unknown (as in the canonical x in modern algebra). However, the date of the Bakhshali manuscript is hard to establish, and has been the subject of considerable debate. The oldest dated Indian document showing use of the modern place value form is a legal document dated 346 in the Chhedi calendar, which translates to 594 CE[3]. While some historians have claimed that the date on this document was a later forgery, it is not clear what might have motivated it, and it is generally accepted that enumeration using the place-value system was in common use in India by the end of the 6th century.[4]. Indian books dated to this period are able to denote numbers in the hundred thousands using a place value system.[5] Many other inscriptions have been found which are dated and make use of the place-value system for either the date or some other numbers within the text [3], although some historians claim these to also be forgeries.
In his seminal text of 499, Aryabhata devised a positional number system without a zero digit. He used the word "kha" for the zero position.[3]. Evidence suggests that a dot had been used in earlier Indian manuscripts to denote an empty place in positional notation. [1]. The same documents sometimes also used a dot to denote an unknown where we might use x. Later Indian mathematicians had names for zero in positional numbers yet had no symbol for it.
The use of zero in these positional systems are the final step to the system of numerals we are familiar with today. The first inscription showing the use of zero which is dated and is not disputed by any historian is the inscription at Gwalior dated 933 in the Vikrama calendar (876 CE.) [3][6].
The oldest known text to use zero is the Jain text from India entitled the Lokavibhaga , dated 458 AD.[7]
The first indubitable appearance of a symbol for zero appears in 876 in India on a stone tablet in Gwalior. Documents on copper plates, with the same small o in them, dated back as far as the sixth century AD, abound.[8]
[edit] Adoption by the Arabs
Before the rise of the Arab Empire, the Hindu-Arabic numeral system was already moving West and was mentioned in Syria in 662 AD by the Nestorian scholar Severus Sebokht who wrote the following:
"I will omit all discussion of the science of the Indians, ... , of their subtle discoveries in astronomy, discoveries that are more ingenious than those of the Greeks and the Babylonians, and of their valuable methods of calculation which surpass description. I wish only to say that this computation is done by means of nine signs. If those who believe, because they speak Greek, that they have arrived at the limits of science, would read the Indian texts, they would be convinced, even if a little late in the day, that there are others who know something of value."[2]
According to al-Qifti's chronology of the scholars[3]:
"... a person from India presented himself before the Caliph al-Mansur in the year [776 AD] who was well versed in the siddhanta method of calculation related to the movement of the heavenly bodies, and having ways of calculating equations based on the half-chord [essentially the sine] calculated in half-degrees ... This is all contained in a work ... from which he claimed to have taken the half-chord calculated for one minute. Al-Mansur ordered this book to be translated into Arabic, and a work to be written, based on the translation, to give the Arabs a solid base for calculating the movements of the planets ..."
The work was most likely to have been Brahmagupta's Brahmasphutasiddhanta (Ifrah) [4] (The Opening of the Universe) which was written in 628[5]. Irrespective of whether Ifrah is right, since all Indian texts after Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya used the Indian number system, certainly from this time the Arabs had a translation of a text written in the Indian number system. [6]
In his text The Arithmetic of Al-Uqlîdisî (Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1978), A.S. Saidan's studies were unable to answer in full how the numerals reached the Arab world:
"It seems plausible that it drifted gradually, probably before the seventh century, through two channels, one starting from Sind, undergoing Persian filtration and spreading in what is now known as the Middle East, and the other starting from the coasts of the Indian Ocean and extending to the southern coasts of the Mediterranean."[7]
Al-Uqlidisi developed a notation to represent decimal fractions.[9][10] The numerals came to fame due to their use in the pivotal work of the Persian mathematician Al-Khwarizmi, whose book On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals was written about 825, and the Arab mathematician Al-Kindi, who wrote four volumes (see [2]) "On the Use of the Indian Numerals" (Ketab fi Isti'mal al-'Adad al-Hindi) about 830. They, amongst other works, contributed to the diffusion of the Indian system of numeration in the Middle-East and the West.
The significance of the development of the positional number system is probably best described by the French mathematician Pierre Simon Laplace (1749–1827) who wrote:
"It is India that gave us the ingenuous method of expressing all numbers by the means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position, as well as an absolute value; a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit, but its very simplicity, the great ease which it has lent to all computations, puts our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions, and we shall appreciate the grandeur of this achievement when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest minds produced by antiquity."
Tobias Dantzig, the father of George Dantzig, had this to say in Number:
"This long period of nearly five thousand years saw the rise and fall of many a civilization, each leaving behind it a heritage of literature, art, philosophy, and religion. But what was the net achievement in the field of reckoning, the earliest art practiced by man? An inflexible numeration so crude as to make progress well nigh impossible, and a calculating device so limited in scope that even elementary calculations called for the services of an expert [...] Man used these devices for thousands of years without contributing a single important idea to the system [...] Even when compared with the slow growth of ideas during the dark ages, the history of reckoning presents a peculiar picture of desolate stagnation. When viewed in this light, the achievements of the unknown Hindu, who some time in the first centuries of our era discovered the principle of position, assumes the importance of a world event."
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/0_(number)
The concept of zero as a number and not merely a symbol for separation is attributed to India where by the 9th century CE practical calculations were carried out using zero, which was treated like any other number, even in case of division.[9][10] The Indian scholar Pingala (circa 5th-2nd century BCE) used binary numbers in the form of short and long syllables (the latter equal in length to two short syllables), making it similar to Morse code.[11][12] He and his contemporary Indian scholars used the Sanskrit word śūnya to refer to zero or void.
In 498 CE, Indian mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata stated that "Sthanam sthanam dasa gunam" or place to place in ten times in value, which may be the origin of the modern decimal-based place value notation.[19]
Rules of Brahmagupta
The rules governing the use of zero appeared for the first time in Brahmagupta's book Brahmasputha Siddhanta (The Opening of the Universe),[23] written in 628. Here Brahmagupta considers not only zero, but negative numbers, and the algebraic rules for the elementary operations of arithmetic with such numbers. In some instances, his rules differ from the modern standard. Here are the rules of Brahmagupta:[23]
The sum of zero and a negative number is negative.
The sum of zero and a positive number is positive.
The sum of zero and zero is zero.
The sum of a positive and a negative is their difference; or, if their absolute values are equal, zero.
A positive or negative number when divided by zero is a fraction with the zero as denominator.
Zero divided by a negative or positive number is either zero or is expressed as a fraction with zero as numerator and the finite quantity as denominator.
Zero divided by zero is zero.
In saying zero divided by zero is zero, Brahmagupta differs from the modern position. Mathematicians normally do not assign a value to this, whereas computers and calculators sometimes assign NaN, which means "not a number." Moreover, non-zero positive or negative numbers when divided by zero are either assigned no value, or a value of unsigned infinity, positive infinity, or negative infinity. Once again, these assignments are not numbers, and are associated more with computer science than pure mathematics, where in most contexts no assignment is done
[edit] Decimal System
Historians trace modern numerals in most languages to the Brahmi numerals, which were in use around the middle of the third century BC.[3] The place value system, however, evolved later. The Brahmi numerals have been found in inscriptions in caves and on coins in regions near Pune, Mumbai, and Uttar Pradesh. These numerals (with slight variations) were in use over quite a long time span up to the 4th century AD[3].
During the Gupta period (early 4th century AD to the late 6th century AD), the Gupta numerals developed from the Brahmi numerals and were spread over large areas by the Gupta empire as they conquered territory [3]. Beginning around 7th century, the Gupta numerals evolved into the Nagari numerals.
History of the Hindu?Arabic numeral system - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
[edit] Positional notation
Further information: positional notation
There is indirect evidence that the Indians developed a positional number system as early as the first century CE[3]. The Bakhshali manuscript (c. 3d c. BCE) uses a place value system with a dot to denote the zero, which is called shunya-sthAna, "empty-place", and the same symbol is also used in algebraic expressions for the unknown (as in the canonical x in modern algebra). However, the date of the Bakhshali manuscript is hard to establish, and has been the subject of considerable debate. The oldest dated Indian document showing use of the modern place value form is a legal document dated 346 in the Chhedi calendar, which translates to 594 CE[3]. While some historians have claimed that the date on this document was a later forgery, it is not clear what might have motivated it, and it is generally accepted that enumeration using the place-value system was in common use in India by the end of the 6th century.[4]. Indian books dated to this period are able to denote numbers in the hundred thousands using a place value system.[5] Many other inscriptions have been found which are dated and make use of the place-value system for either the date or some other numbers within the text [3], although some historians claim these to also be forgeries.
In his seminal text of 499, Aryabhata devised a positional number system without a zero digit. He used the word "kha" for the zero position.[3]. Evidence suggests that a dot had been used in earlier Indian manuscripts to denote an empty place in positional notation. [1]. The same documents sometimes also used a dot to denote an unknown where we might use x. Later Indian mathematicians had names for zero in positional numbers yet had no symbol for it.
The use of zero in these positional systems are the final step to the system of numerals we are familiar with today. The first inscription showing the use of zero which is dated and is not disputed by any historian is the inscription at Gwalior dated 933 in the Vikrama calendar (876 CE.) [3][6].
The oldest known text to use zero is the Jain text from India entitled the Lokavibhaga , dated 458 AD.[7]
The first indubitable appearance of a symbol for zero appears in 876 in India on a stone tablet in Gwalior. Documents on copper plates, with the same small o in them, dated back as far as the sixth century AD, abound.[8]
[edit] Positional notation
Further information: positional notation
There is indirect evidence that the Indians developed a positional number system as early as the first century CE[3]. The Bakhshali manuscript (c. 3d c. BCE) uses a place value system with a dot to denote the zero, which is called shunya-sthAna, "empty-place", and the same symbol is also used in algebraic expressions for the unknown (as in the canonical x in modern algebra). However, the date of the Bakhshali manuscript is hard to establish, and has been the subject of considerable debate. The oldest dated Indian document showing use of the modern place value form is a legal document dated 346 in the Chhedi calendar, which translates to 594 CE[3]. While some historians have claimed that the date on this document was a later forgery, it is not clear what might have motivated it, and it is generally accepted that enumeration using the place-value system was in common use in India by the end of the 6th century.[4]. Indian books dated to this period are able to denote numbers in the hundred thousands using a place value system.[5] Many other inscriptions have been found which are dated and make use of the place-value system for either the date or some other numbers within the text [3], although some historians claim these to also be forgeries.
In his seminal text of 499, Aryabhata devised a positional number system without a zero digit. He used the word "kha" for the zero position.[3]. Evidence suggests that a dot had been used in earlier Indian manuscripts to denote an empty place in positional notation. [1]. The same documents sometimes also used a dot to denote an unknown where we might use x. Later Indian mathematicians had names for zero in positional numbers yet had no symbol for it.
The use of zero in these positional systems are the final step to the system of numerals we are familiar with today. The first inscription showing the use of zero which is dated and is not disputed by any historian is the inscription at Gwalior dated 933 in the Vikrama calendar (876 CE.) [3][6].
The oldest known text to use zero is the Jain text from India entitled the Lokavibhaga , dated 458 AD.[7]
The first indubitable appearance of a symbol for zero appears in 876 in India on a stone tablet in Gwalior. Documents on copper plates, with the same small o in them, dated back as far as the sixth century AD, abound.[8]
[edit] Adoption by the Arabs
Before the rise of the Arab Empire, the Hindu-Arabic numeral system was already moving West and was mentioned in Syria in 662 AD by the Nestorian scholar Severus Sebokht who wrote the following:
"I will omit all discussion of the science of the Indians, ... , of their subtle discoveries in astronomy, discoveries that are more ingenious than those of the Greeks and the Babylonians, and of their valuable methods of calculation which surpass description. I wish only to say that this computation is done by means of nine signs. If those who believe, because they speak Greek, that they have arrived at the limits of science, would read the Indian texts, they would be convinced, even if a little late in the day, that there are others who know something of value."[2]
According to al-Qifti's chronology of the scholars[3]:
"... a person from India presented himself before the Caliph al-Mansur in the year [776 AD] who was well versed in the siddhanta method of calculation related to the movement of the heavenly bodies, and having ways of calculating equations based on the half-chord [essentially the sine] calculated in half-degrees ... This is all contained in a work ... from which he claimed to have taken the half-chord calculated for one minute. Al-Mansur ordered this book to be translated into Arabic, and a work to be written, based on the translation, to give the Arabs a solid base for calculating the movements of the planets ..."
The work was most likely to have been Brahmagupta's Brahmasphutasiddhanta (Ifrah) [4] (The Opening of the Universe) which was written in 628[5]. Irrespective of whether Ifrah is right, since all Indian texts after Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya used the Indian number system, certainly from this time the Arabs had a translation of a text written in the Indian number system. [6]
In his text The Arithmetic of Al-Uqlîdisî (Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1978), A.S. Saidan's studies were unable to answer in full how the numerals reached the Arab world:
"It seems plausible that it drifted gradually, probably before the seventh century, through two channels, one starting from Sind, undergoing Persian filtration and spreading in what is now known as the Middle East, and the other starting from the coasts of the Indian Ocean and extending to the southern coasts of the Mediterranean."[7]
Al-Uqlidisi developed a notation to represent decimal fractions.[9][10] The numerals came to fame due to their use in the pivotal work of the Persian mathematician Al-Khwarizmi, whose book On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals was written about 825, and the Arab mathematician Al-Kindi, who wrote four volumes (see [2]) "On the Use of the Indian Numerals" (Ketab fi Isti'mal al-'Adad al-Hindi) about 830. They, amongst other works, contributed to the diffusion of the Indian system of numeration in the Middle-East and the West.
The significance of the development of the positional number system is probably best described by the French mathematician Pierre Simon Laplace (1749–1827) who wrote:
"It is India that gave us the ingenuous method of expressing all numbers by the means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position, as well as an absolute value; a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit, but its very simplicity, the great ease which it has lent to all computations, puts our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions, and we shall appreciate the grandeur of this achievement when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest minds produced by antiquity."
Tobias Dantzig, the father of George Dantzig, had this to say in Number:
"This long period of nearly five thousand years saw the rise and fall of many a civilization, each leaving behind it a heritage of literature, art, philosophy, and religion. But what was the net achievement in the field of reckoning, the earliest art practiced by man? An inflexible numeration so crude as to make progress well nigh impossible, and a calculating device so limited in scope that even elementary calculations called for the services of an expert [...] Man used these devices for thousands of years without contributing a single important idea to the system [...] Even when compared with the slow growth of ideas during the dark ages, the history of reckoning presents a peculiar picture of desolate stagnation. When viewed in this light, the achievements of the unknown Hindu, who some time in the first centuries of our era discovered the principle of position, assumes the importance of a world event."
Free Tibet
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Wikipedia
Muslim intervention was started in India a bit before the Arrival of Muhammad Bin Qasim .
Guess how did Muhammad Bin Qasim Arrived??
Warships my dear , Muslim Navy was spread from Arabia to persia to Africa .
I also have learn that Ancient Hindus used to believe that the Water Is a " GOD " and crossing the water is a sin where as they also believed that India is the whole world
Have a look at this dude.
Discover The Muslim Heritage In Our World | 1001 Inventions
Brother,
You seems to be a victim of propogenda about Hindus and Indians.
Indians or ancient hindus were master of seas.
Following is an extract of this article for full reading click the link.
"Lothal's dock—the world's earliest known—connected the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river on the trade route between Harappan cities in Sindh and the peninsula of Saurashtra when the surrounding Kutch desert of today was a part of the Arabian Sea. It was a vital and thriving trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of beads, gems and valuable ornaments reaching the far corners of West Asia and Africa.
Lothal's people were responsible for the earliest-known portrayals of realism in art and sculpture, telling some of the most well-known fables of today. Its scientists used a shell compass and divided the horizon and sky into 8–12 whole parts, possibly pioneering the study of stars and advanced navigation—2000 years before the Greeks.The techniques and tools they pioneered for bead-making and in metallurgy have stood the test of time for over 4000 years.
Lothal - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Indian maritime history begins during the 3rd millennium BCE when inhabitants of the Indus Valley initiated maritime trading contact with Mesopotamia.
Indian maritime history - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Historically, however, the first attested attempt to organize a navy in India, as described by Megasthenes (ca. 350 BCE—290 BCE), is attributed to Candragupta Maurya (reign 322 BC—298 BCE).[21] The Mauryan empire (322–185 BCE) navy continued till the times of emperor Ashoka (reign 273—32 BCE), who used it to send massive diplomatic missions to Greece, Syria, Egypt, Cyrene, Macedonia and Epirus.[21] Following nomadic interference in Siberia—one of the sources for India's bullion—India diverted its attention to the Malay peninsula, which became its new source for gold and was soon exposed to the world via a series of maritime trade routes.[22] The period under the Mauryan empire also witnessed various other regions of the world engage increasingly in the Indian Ocean maritime voyages.
I hope now you get over the propaganda and must acknowledge that
even before the arrival of Islam or even before first human become Muslim India already have hundreds years of Maritime trade spreading between different seas and oceans.
more on indian mathematics:
Indian mathematics - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Indian mathematics is the mathematics that emerged in South Asia[1] from ancient times until the end of the 18th century. In the classical period of Indian mathematics (400 AD to 1200 AD), important contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara II. The decimal number system in use today[2] was first recorded in Indian mathematics.[3] Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the concept of zero as a number,[4] negative numbers,[5] arithmetic, and algebra.[6] In addition, trigonometry, having evolved in the Hellenistic world and having been introduced into ancient India through the translation of Greek works,[7] was further advanced in India, and, in particular, the modern definitions of sine and cosine were developed there.[8] These mathematical concepts were transmitted to the Middle East, China, and Europe[6] and led to further developments that now form the foundations of many areas of mathematics
The concept of zero as a number and not merely a symbol for separation is attributed to India where by the 9th century CE practical calculations were carried out using zero, which was treated like any other number, even in case of division.[85][86] The Indian scholar Pingala (circa 5th-2nd century BCE) used binary numbers in the form of short and long syllables (the latter equal in length to two short syllables), making it similar to Morse code.[87][88] He and his contemporary Indian scholars used the Sanskrit word śūnya to refer to zero or void. Early Indians in 8th century BC, indicated zero by dot and word "bindu", which is still retained in Modern Mathematics to denote part of number like 1.23.
[edit] Prehistory
Excavations at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and other sites of the Indus Valley Civilization have uncovered evidence of the use of "practical mathematics". The people of the IVC manufactured bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They used a standardized system of weights based on the ratios: 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500, with the unit weight equaling approximately 28 grams (and approximately equal to the English ounce or Greek uncia). They mass produced weights in regular geometrical shapes, which included hexahedra, barrels, cones, and cylinders, thereby demonstrating knowledge of basic geometry.[17]
The inhabitants of Indus civilization also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler—whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.[18][19]
[edit] Vedic period
See also: Vedanga and Vedas
[edit] Samhitas and Brahmanas
The religious texts of the Vedic Period provide evidence for the use of large numbers. By the time of the Yajurvedasaṃhitā (1200-900 BCE), numbers as high as 1012 were being included in the texts.[20] For example, the mantra (sacrificial formula) at the end of the annahoma ("food-oblation rite") performed during the aśvamedha ("horse sacrifice"), and uttered just before-, during-, and just after sunrise, invokes powers of ten from a hundred to a trillion:[20]
"Hail to śata ("hundred," 102), hail to sahasra ("thousand," 103), hail to ayuta ("ten thousand," 104), hail to niyuta ("hundred thousand," 105), hail to prayuta ("million," 106), hail to arbuda ("ten million," 107), hail to nyarbuda ("hundred million," 108), hail to samudra ("billion," 109, literally "ocean"), hail to madhya ("ten billion," 1010, literally "middle"), hail to anta ("hundred billion," 1011,lit., "end"), hail to parārdha ("one trillion," 1012 lit., "beyond parts"), hail to the dawn (uśas), hail to the twilight (vyuṣṭi), hail to the one which is going to rise (udeṣyat), hail to the one which is rising (udyat), hail to the one which has just risen (udita), hail to the heaven (svarga), hail to the world (loka), hail to all."[20]
The Satapatha Brahmana (ca. 7th century BCE) contains rules for ritual geometric constructions that are similar to the Sulba Sutras.[21]
[edit] Numerals and the Decimal Number System
It is well known that the decimal place-value system in use today was first recorded in India, then transmitted to the Islamic world, and eventually to Europe.[47] The Syrian bishop Severus Sebokht wrote in the mid-seventh century CE about the "nine signs" of the Indians for expressing numbers.[47] However, how, when, and where the first decimal place value system was invented is not so clear.[48]
The earliest extant script used in India was the Kharoṣṭhī script used in the Gandhara culture of the north-west. It is thought to be of Aramaic origin and it was in use from the fourth century BCE to the fourth century CE. Almost contemporaneously, another script, the Brāhmī script, appeared on much of the sub-continent, and would later become the foundation of many scripts of South Asia and South-east Asia. Both scripts had numeral symbols and numeral systems, which were initially not based on a place-value system.[49]
The earliest surviving evidence of decimal place value numerals in India and southeast Asia is from the middle of the first millennium CE.[50] A copper plate from Gujarat, India mentions the date 595 CE, written in a decimal place value notation, although there is some doubt as to the authenticity of the plate.[50] Decimal numerals recording the years 683 CE have also been found in stone inscriptions in Indonesia and Cambodia, where Indian cultural influence was substantial.[50]
Indian mathematics - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Indian mathematics is the mathematics that emerged in South Asia[1] from ancient times until the end of the 18th century. In the classical period of Indian mathematics (400 AD to 1200 AD), important contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara II. The decimal number system in use today[2] was first recorded in Indian mathematics.[3] Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the concept of zero as a number,[4] negative numbers,[5] arithmetic, and algebra.[6] In addition, trigonometry, having evolved in the Hellenistic world and having been introduced into ancient India through the translation of Greek works,[7] was further advanced in India, and, in particular, the modern definitions of sine and cosine were developed there.[8] These mathematical concepts were transmitted to the Middle East, China, and Europe[6] and led to further developments that now form the foundations of many areas of mathematics
The concept of zero as a number and not merely a symbol for separation is attributed to India where by the 9th century CE practical calculations were carried out using zero, which was treated like any other number, even in case of division.[85][86] The Indian scholar Pingala (circa 5th-2nd century BCE) used binary numbers in the form of short and long syllables (the latter equal in length to two short syllables), making it similar to Morse code.[87][88] He and his contemporary Indian scholars used the Sanskrit word śūnya to refer to zero or void. Early Indians in 8th century BC, indicated zero by dot and word "bindu", which is still retained in Modern Mathematics to denote part of number like 1.23.
[edit] Prehistory
Excavations at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and other sites of the Indus Valley Civilization have uncovered evidence of the use of "practical mathematics". The people of the IVC manufactured bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They used a standardized system of weights based on the ratios: 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500, with the unit weight equaling approximately 28 grams (and approximately equal to the English ounce or Greek uncia). They mass produced weights in regular geometrical shapes, which included hexahedra, barrels, cones, and cylinders, thereby demonstrating knowledge of basic geometry.[17]
The inhabitants of Indus civilization also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler—whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.[18][19]
[edit] Vedic period
See also: Vedanga and Vedas
[edit] Samhitas and Brahmanas
The religious texts of the Vedic Period provide evidence for the use of large numbers. By the time of the Yajurvedasaṃhitā (1200-900 BCE), numbers as high as 1012 were being included in the texts.[20] For example, the mantra (sacrificial formula) at the end of the annahoma ("food-oblation rite") performed during the aśvamedha ("horse sacrifice"), and uttered just before-, during-, and just after sunrise, invokes powers of ten from a hundred to a trillion:[20]
"Hail to śata ("hundred," 102), hail to sahasra ("thousand," 103), hail to ayuta ("ten thousand," 104), hail to niyuta ("hundred thousand," 105), hail to prayuta ("million," 106), hail to arbuda ("ten million," 107), hail to nyarbuda ("hundred million," 108), hail to samudra ("billion," 109, literally "ocean"), hail to madhya ("ten billion," 1010, literally "middle"), hail to anta ("hundred billion," 1011,lit., "end"), hail to parārdha ("one trillion," 1012 lit., "beyond parts"), hail to the dawn (uśas), hail to the twilight (vyuṣṭi), hail to the one which is going to rise (udeṣyat), hail to the one which is rising (udyat), hail to the one which has just risen (udita), hail to the heaven (svarga), hail to the world (loka), hail to all."[20]
The Satapatha Brahmana (ca. 7th century BCE) contains rules for ritual geometric constructions that are similar to the Sulba Sutras.[21]
[edit] Numerals and the Decimal Number System
It is well known that the decimal place-value system in use today was first recorded in India, then transmitted to the Islamic world, and eventually to Europe.[47] The Syrian bishop Severus Sebokht wrote in the mid-seventh century CE about the "nine signs" of the Indians for expressing numbers.[47] However, how, when, and where the first decimal place value system was invented is not so clear.[48]
The earliest extant script used in India was the Kharoṣṭhī script used in the Gandhara culture of the north-west. It is thought to be of Aramaic origin and it was in use from the fourth century BCE to the fourth century CE. Almost contemporaneously, another script, the Brāhmī script, appeared on much of the sub-continent, and would later become the foundation of many scripts of South Asia and South-east Asia. Both scripts had numeral symbols and numeral systems, which were initially not based on a place-value system.[49]
The earliest surviving evidence of decimal place value numerals in India and southeast Asia is from the middle of the first millennium CE.[50] A copper plate from Gujarat, India mentions the date 595 CE, written in a decimal place value notation, although there is some doubt as to the authenticity of the plate.[50] Decimal numerals recording the years 683 CE have also been found in stone inscriptions in Indonesia and Cambodia, where Indian cultural influence was substantial.[50]
TOPGUN
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You need to show respect to others's faith there is nothing stupid about arabic it is one of the earliest lang's on earth and wat he said was totally right atleast he has some class and is a decent person .. listen to your words wat you wrote! respect others and there faiths don't show your hate here or find your way out real quick.
footmarks
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Religion may or may not be related to innovation, i cant say for sure. But one thing I can surely derive from the discussions so far, and thats is about arab people.
They didnt invented anything at all-just pirated stuff and a bit of improvisation, and not to mention being the first to introduce it to western historians as their own inventions. As the connectivity between different civilizations improved, no. of innovations from arabs declined in more or less the same proportion. and blame it on patent laws, after patent laws being implemented, i dont remember any innovation emanating from arabia. So, they didnt invented the whole bunch and went to sleep. rather, they stole the whole bunch, made pirated copies, marketed them as their own work and then found a dead end later. And they are still good (infact very good) at making pirated copies of original work. Most of us see the bollywood movies in pirated CD's and DVD's coming from arab countries in present days too.
Religion and science are not necessarily connected. in fact mostly they are just opposites. Religion is based on beliefs ( which cant be proved by facts) while science is based on facts and logical reasoning (having no room for unproved beliefs).
listen to what he says in his speech
footmarks
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Buddy, this thread is not about pakistani inventions,its about Muslim Inventions.
So then say that in your writings. Your writings keep mentioning 'Indian.'
TruthSeeker
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Why do you guys waste your time with this topic? It is abundantly clear that, today and for at least the past 100 years, the Muslim world has not contributed very much at all to the advancement of technology. Who cares what happened hundreds of years before anyone living today was born? It doesn't matter. What matters is whether or not Muslim-majority nations are going to participate in technology advancement for the betterment of themselves and humankind or not. Some Muslim nations have tons of money. Other Muslim nations have tons of very bright, technically able young people. WHY can't they get together somehow? Why can't the Saudi's fund some world class technology research instead of worthless madrassas in backward hinterlands?
TruthSeeker
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For Example:
Intel, Micron Cram 8 Gigs of Chip Into 4-Gig Bag
By Richard Adhikari
TechNewsWorld
02/01/10 11:37 AM PT
Intel and Micron have announced the world's first 25nm-flash memory device -- the smallest process technology in the semiconductor industry.
Their 25-nanometer (25nm) NAND flash semiconductor offers 8 GB of memory in a single NAND processor. This could pave the way for higher-capacity storage for consumer devices.
The 25nm NAND semiconductor is sampling now; it will be in production in the second quarter of 2010.
Technology News: Chips: Intel, Micron Cram 8 Gigs of Chip Into 4-Gig Bag
_________________________
There needs to be some press releases like this one, originating from a Muslim-majority nation, before talking about how Muslim inventions "shape" our world and not the 14th century world.
Intel, Micron Cram 8 Gigs of Chip Into 4-Gig Bag
By Richard Adhikari
TechNewsWorld
02/01/10 11:37 AM PT
Intel and Micron have announced the world's first 25nm-flash memory device -- the smallest process technology in the semiconductor industry.
Their 25-nanometer (25nm) NAND flash semiconductor offers 8 GB of memory in a single NAND processor. This could pave the way for higher-capacity storage for consumer devices.
The 25nm NAND semiconductor is sampling now; it will be in production in the second quarter of 2010.
Technology News: Chips: Intel, Micron Cram 8 Gigs of Chip Into 4-Gig Bag
_________________________
There needs to be some press releases like this one, originating from a Muslim-majority nation, before talking about how Muslim inventions "shape" our world and not the 14th century world.
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