# History of China



## siegecrossbow

I can't believe that no one started a thread on Chinese history yet! Well here you go. On this thread you can discuss absolutely ANYTHING as long as it is related to Chinese history. From the Qin Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, from the Republic to the People's Republic... This thread is going to have it all!

Let the discussions begin!

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## lcloo

Qin Dynasty, though brutal, was the beginning for a united Chinese nation. The standardization of roads, width of wheel base, written characters etc forged the one nation identity to the people.

Qing Dynasty rulers though regarded as outsiders for being non-Han, had ironically had contributed to a Chinese nation comprising of many ethnic races and a relatively large territory, though at the end of their rules, huge mass of lands were lost to western colonist, especially the north east. And China's treasury was drained by huge war reparation, in millions of oz of silver, paid to western nations that invaded China. And resulted in nearly 100 years of China being a poor nation, and only ended after Deng Xiao Ping's open economic policy bear fruits. 

The warlord period after collapse of Qing Dynasty saw many provinces declared independence from central government, Outer Mongolia break away with Soviet's instigation. Tibet, under British influnce, expelled the KMT troops , North western Xinjiang, with Soviet help, declared itself as East Turkestan, Sichuan, Hunan, North East Province etc also declared independence.

It took the Nationalist Revolution Army decades to fight and negotiate to bring many provinces into the fold of the central government, before the whole of China was re-united, then the imperial Japanese invaded China.

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## somebozo

Many people here curiously inquire about basis of strong Sino-Pak releations..So I have choosen to cover releations of various Sino dyansties with Muslims and Islam. This will be a multi part series covering each Chinese ruling dynasty. The information is collected from various sources and mixed.

Let this also be a blow to Indians who think Sino-Pak alliance is only in contrast of balancing India.

*Tang Dynasty*

According to China Muslims' traditional legendary accounts, Islam was first brought to China by an embassy sent by Uthman, the third Caliph, in 651, less than twenty years after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The embassy was led by Sa`d ibn Ab&#299; Waqq&#257;s, the maternal uncle of the prophet himself. Emperor Gaozong, the Tang emperor who received the envoy then ordered the construction of the Memorial mosque in Canton, the first mosque in the country, in memory of the prophet.

While modern historians say that there is no evidence for Waqq&#257;s himself ever coming to China,[2] they do believe that Muslim diplomats and merchants arrived to Tang China within a few decades from the beginning of Muslim Era.[2] The Tang Dynasty's cosmopolitan culture, with its intensive contacts with Central Asia and its significant communities of (originally non-Muslim) Central and Western Asian merchants resident in Chinese cities, which helped the introduction of Islam.[2] The first major Muslim settlements in China consisted of Arab and Persian merchants.[3] During the Tang and especially the Song eras, comparatively well-established, even if somewhat segregated, mercantile Muslim communities existed in the port cities of Guangzhou, Quanzhou, and Hangzhou on China's southeastern seaboard, as well as in the interior centers such as Chang'an, Kaifeng, and Yangzhou.[4]

Prior to 500 CE and hence before the establishment of Islam, Arab seafarers had established trade relations with the "Middle Kingdom" (China). Arab ships bravely set off from Basra at the tip of the Arabian Gulf and also from the town of Qays (Siraf) in the Persian Gulf. They sailed the Indian Ocean passing Sarandip (Sri Lanka) and navigated their way through the Straits of Malacca which were between the Sumatran and Malaysian peninsulas en route to the South China Sea. They established trading posts on the southeastern coastal ports of Quanzhou and Guangzhou. Some Arabs had already settled in China and probably embraced Islam when the first Muslim deputation arrived, as their families and friends back in Arabia, had already embraced Islam during the Holy Prophet's revelation (610-32). 

In Madina, Sa'd, using his ability in architecture added an Iwan (an arched hall used by a Persian Emperor) as a worship area. He later laid the foundation of what was to be the first Mosque in China where early Islamic architecture forged a relationship with Chinese architecture. 

Sa'd later settled in Guangzhou and built the Huaisheng Mosque which was an important event in the history of Islam in China.
The 'Great Mosque of Guangzhou' is also known as Huaisheng Mosque which means 'Remember the Sage' (A Memorial Mosque to the Holy Prophet) and is also popularly called the 'Guangta Mosque' which translates as 'The Beacon Tower Mosque'. Huaisheng Mosque is located on Guantgta Road (Light Pagoda Road) which runs eastwards off Renmin Zhonglu. It is reputedly the oldest surviving mosque in the whole of China and is over 1300 years old. It survived through several historical events which inevitably took place outside its door step. This mosque still stands in excellent condition in modern Guangzhou after repairs and restorations.

Whilst an Islamic state was founded by the Holy Prophet Muhammad, China was enduring a period of unification and defence. Early Chinese annals mentioned Muslim Arabs and called their kingdom al-Madinah (of Arabia). Islam in Chinese is called "Yisilan Jiao" (meaning "Pure Religion"). A Chinese official once described Makkah as being the birthplace of Buddha Ma-hia-wu (i.e. Holy Prophet Muhammad).

According to the ancient historical records of the T'ang Dynasty, an emissary from the kingdom of al-Madinah led by Sa'd Ibn Abi Waqqas and his deputation of Sahabah, who sailed on a special envoy to China in c.650 CE, via the Indian Ocean and the China Sea to the famous port of Guangzhou, thence traveled overland to Chang'an (present day Xi'an) via what was later known as the "Silk Route".

Sa'd and his deputation brought presents and were warmly received at the royal court by the T'ang Emperor Kao-tsung, (r. 650-683) in c.651 CE despite a recent plea of support against the Arabs forwarded to the Emperor in that same year by Shah Peroz (the ruler of Sassanids Persia). The latter was a son of Yazdegerd who, along with the Byzantines already had based their embassies in China over a decade earlier. Together they were the two great powers of the west. A similar plea made to Emperor Tai Tsung (r.627-649) against the simultaneous spread of Muslim forces was refused.

First news of Islam had already reached the T'ang royal court during the reign of Emperor Tai Tsung when he was informed by an embassy of the Sassanian king of Persia, as well as the Byzantiums of the emergence of the Islamic rule. Both sought protection from the might of China. Nevertheless, the second year of Kao-tsung's reign marks the first official visit by a Muslim embassador.

The emperor, after making enquiries about Islam, gave general approval to the new religion which he considered to be compatible with the teachings of Confucius. But he felt that the five daily canonical prayers and a month of fasting were requirements too severe for his taste and he did not convert. He allowed Sa'd Ibn Abi Waqqas and his delegation freedom to propagate their faith and expressed his admiration for Islam which consequently gained a firm foothold in the country.

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## huzihaidao12

What is the history of China? Let us look at a foreign friend's Ideas. 

Interview mit Helmut Schmidt: Wir sehen China ganz falsch - Nachrichten - Politik - Home - Westdeutsche Zeitung

China, as a test of world history: more than ten years old and the Prime Minister Helmut Schmidt has been concerned about the rise of China, the giant country. 

Mr. Prime Minister, to listen to your speech, read your articles about China written, my impression is that you use the most cautious approach to describe the development there, I feel you have great enthusiasm in China. 

Schmidt: not a passion, a curiosity. 

Why curious? 

Schmidt: world history there have been many brilliant culture. For example, in areas of today's Iran and Iraq, before there was a fruitful culture of Mesopotamia, there are even earlier in Mesopotamia culture. In addition, I also thought of the Incas in South America, Thor Aitken and Aztec and India, Egypt's civilization. 

Chinese culture has been four or five thousand years of history, this is it so special, it has been there, although it was already very old. Why is this so? Why did other ancient cultures may have fallen out? This is where my curiosity.


If someone asks you, China is not pursuing expansionist policies, you always say, this country has never had such a policy to pursue. 

Schmidt: No, I do not think so. But this is China's large population are related. In Europe, only one million, twelve million or fifteen million people, China has a population of hundreds of millions. A populous country. Meanwhile, the state emerged in Europe in the past one thousand years, that is from the UK after 1066 or later King Ludwig I said, our national language in Europe is also divided. 

Each country has its own language. Sometimes use different words. In the 20th century, Croats and Serbs are in the same state of Yugoslavia. When the exchange between them with each other can understand, but they can not understand each other's newspapers. Because the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet is the language used, and Croatia with the Latin alphabet. 

Instead, hundreds of millions of population are the same word used, even if some people do not read or write. And the Chinese people is a huge local governors and the emperor has the right to compete between the countries. Engage in expansion, not a crusade for empire, such behavior may be due to a large population reasons. 

In that glorious centuries, the Chinese people not only the vast territory of China, but also in culture and civilization of the leading position on the very clear that if they go to oppress other nations, will make them the pride of the discount . I said this time is that until 1500. At that time China is the center of the empire. Ancient Chinese people is so declared. 

Other people are barbarians in their eyes. The Chinese people, if foreign capital occasionally to kowtow to their, tribute, and then go home, is enough. Chinese people to let foreigners know that China is big country, but only a marginal phenomenon in other countries only. This is not just cultural self-confidence, could lead to a very large extent, Chinese people do not pursue the policy of the imperialist-style. 

They are different with the Romans, with the Athens Federation and other cultures are also different. Even the Egyptians have tried to extend their rule to Iraq or Persia. Chinese people do not advocate the expansion, there was only twice exception.

With experience in China and contacts with Chinese people, your own ideas changed? 


Schmidt: possible, but I can not eleven minutes to carefully think out what has changed. However, each time to go, I have more impressive to Chinese people's cultural achievements. 



I mention the last few issues. Do you know why you are open-minded of other cultures? Contact should be no relationship between family environment, right? 


Schmidt: You are right. What is the role the family did not. As I interviewed the first to say, I'm always curious. The world has many ancient cultures, I have full respect for them. Such as Egypt. Just think of literature in the West known as Akhenaten's already dead Pharaoh Amun IV feats. 

He had to abolish polytheism, he implemented a god. But he did not obtain long-term historical success. After his death, everything goes back to. This than Martin Luther achieved much greater achievements. I think this is fascinating. I used to have an Egyptian friend who was murdered in the State President Sadat. 



He said to Moses, from the Aihe that Dayton has a spiritual bridge between, I can not find any evidence. One can not rule out this possibility. Moses probably in a hundred years after the Dayton Aihe it. At that time, another culture has experienced a brilliant development. But not a highly developed culture as Chinese culture that does not need God or deityd to be able to develop very well. 

Why is it so? 

Schmidt: hard to say. Perhaps they lack imagination, but it is also impossible. For me this is a mystery.

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## siegecrossbow

somebozo said:


> *The emperor, after making enquiries about Islam, gave general approval to the new religion which he considered to be compatible with the teachings of Confucius.* But he felt that the five daily canonical prayers and a month of fasting were requirements too severe for his taste and he did not convert. He allowed Sa'd Ibn Abi Waqqas and his delegation freedom to propagate their faith and expressed his admiration for Islam which consequently gained a firm foothold in the country.



Tang Tai-zong Li shi ming is held in very high regards in China. I, however, never knew that he contemplated converting to Islam once! This shows the level of tolerance that we had for different religions in the past.

Thanks for enlightening me bro.

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## Speeder 2

siegecrossbow said:


> I can't believe that no one started a thread on Chinese history yet! Well here you go. On this thread you can discuss absolutely ANYTHING as long as it is related to Chinese history. From the Qin Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, from the Republic to the People's Republic... This thread is going to have it all!
> 
> Let the discussions begin!



From your usename, I dare to guess that you must be an expert on Qin / Han Dynsties' weaponaries vis-a-vis Alexander de Great / Roman Empire alike. Tell me that I am right?

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## siegecrossbow

Speeder 2 said:


> From your usename, I dare to guess that you must be an expert on Qin / Han Dynsties' weaponaries vis-a-vis Alexander de Great / Roman Empire alike. Tell me that I am right?



Correct. Guess what I am going to bring up next:

China was at the forefront of siege weaponry for much of her history. We produced innovations such as the triple-bow siegecrossbow, multi-shot crossbow, traction trebuchets, and early gunpowder weapons like the huochong and rocket launchers. One thing that bugged me, however, is the fact that although China invented trebuchets they never utilized the counterweight trebuchet, an Arabic innovation. Instead of using large counterweights to power the weapon hundreds of men are used to yank on ropes tethered to the catapult. Although I think that traction catapults are suitable for smaller catapults due to the ease of operation and faster rate of fire, counterweight trebuchets are far better for large scaled weapons. As a matter of fact the Arab engineers helped demolish the walls of Xiangyang during the Mongol siege. Any ideas on why that is the case?

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## Water Car Engineer

I like the Qin and Han empire the most.

Ever played *Dynasty warriors*? Always used to play that when I was younger. I like the three kingdoms period in China...

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## siegecrossbow

Varghese said:


> I like the Qin and Han empire the best.
> 
> Ever played *Dynasty warriors*? Always used to play that when I was younger. I like the three kingdoms period in China...



I haven't played Dynasty warriors but the game is notorious enough in China. Great introduction for foreigners to the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. 

Just FYI I share my last name with Lu Bu. Guess that makes me an uberboss on this thread lol.

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## no_name

I think it was near the end of the three kingdom that buddhism was infused into chinese culture.

It reached greatest influence under Tang and waned along with the dynasty.

You can sense the transition in the form of building designs/ clothing and art form in general.

The ancient chinese pagoda you see are derived from their indian counterparts. Before buddhism pagoda weren't built.

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## siegecrossbow

no_name said:


> I think it was near the end of the three kingdom that buddhism was infused into chinese culture.



Really? I always thought that it didn't become popular until the Northern and Southern Dynasties. Liang Wu Di was the one who formalized many of the rules followed by Chinese buddhists such as not eating meat.

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## no_name

Well it was introduced during Han dynasty (daoism was prevalent then) but didn't really take off until the time you mentioned when emperior and court got popular with it.

I don't think people will be interested in what some monk have to say when their lives are on the line during the three kingdoms.

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## siegecrossbow

no_name said:


> Well it was introduced during Han dynasty (daoism was prevalent then) but didn't really take off until the time you mentioned when emperior and court got popular with it.
> 
> I don't think people will be interested in what some monk have to say when their lives are on the line during the three kingdoms.



I think Guan Yu encountered a Buddhist monk in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms during when he tried to return to Liu Bei who warned him that Cao Cao's general wanted to kill him. ROTK, however, was written during the Ming Dynasty and I doubt the authenticity of that passage.

I think I'll post some pictures of authentic Three Kingdom arms/armor. Too many people are mislead by the book which describe Song and even Ming era arms and armor in the Three Kingdoms setting.

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## no_name

Good idea. Three kingdom armour looks a bit like japanese armour (the leather ones, not the one you see in samurai movies)

San Guo Zhi is the more historically accurate account of the three kingdoms.

I like San man jia, Ming guan jia but I also like Tang military uniform for ceremonies. They showed much flare.


EDIT: And lol, i think chinese armour depicted in dynastic warriors are about as accurate as western costume depicted in lord of the rings

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## siegecrossbow

no_name said:


> Good idea. Three kingdom armour looks a bit like japanese armour (the leather ones, not the one you see in samurai movies)
> 
> San Guo Zhi is the more historically accurate account of the three kingdoms.
> 
> I like San man jia, Ming guan jia but I also like Tang military uniform for ceremonies. They showed much flare.
> 
> 
> EDIT: And lol, i think chinese armour depicted in dynastic warriors are about as accurate as western costume depicted in lord of the rings



Here is the leather armor used during the Three Kingdoms period:







Here are the stylistic representations from Romance of the three kingdoms:

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## no_name

Song Dynasty (960&#8211;1279AD) statue armour:






It features what seems to be star-scale armour.

Ming Dynasty (1368&#8211;1644AD) statue armour: 





Featuring mountain-scale armour.

These types were developed during Tang Dynasty and became popular during song dynasty. They provides mobility and flexible light weight but rigid armour. The star configuration leaves a small hole in the centre which was fixed by the mountain scale design.

Star design:





Mountain design:





Song Dynasty cavalry:

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## siegecrossbow

no_name said:


> Song Dynasty (960&#8211;1279AD) statue armour:
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> It features what seems to be star-scale armour.
> 
> Ming Dynasty (1368&#8211;1644AD) statue armour:
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> Featuring mountain-scale armour.
> 
> These types were developed during Tang Dynasty and became popular during song dynasty. They provides mobility and flexible light weight but rigid armour. The star configuration leaves a small hole in the centre which was fixed by the mountain scale design.
> 
> Star design:
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> Mountain design:



The Mountain design is my favorite. They, however, are more difficult to produce than fish-scale or brigandine so they were not that commonly used during the Song and Ming Dynasties. It appears that only high ranking officers used them.

Have you got any pictures of Ming Guang Kui? That was the closest that China got to developing true plate armor. Unfortunately they were deemed too expensive after the fall of the Tang Dynasty and weren't used as often as a result.

p.s. I think I'll get a mod to sticky this thread.

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## no_name

siegecrossbow said:


> The Mountain design is my favorite. They, however, are more difficult to produce than fish-scale or brigandine so they were not that commonly used during the Song and Ming Dynasties. It appears that only high ranking officers used them.



Yeah only generals or elite unit uses them.

Shown below are normal units:

Song Heavy cavalry





Tang heavy cavalry





Tang heavy cavalry replica (cheap steel work )




The Japanese were really fond of the scary masks and had them on their samurai armour.



siegecrossbow said:


> Have you got any pictures of Ming Guang Kui? That was the closest that China got to developing true plate armor. Unfortunately they were deemed too expensive after the fall of the Tang Dynasty and weren't used as often as a result.



Have an example here, they are supposed to be shiny under the sun though:

This one is from Sui dynasty. I expect tang ones to be flashier





An illustration of the Tang dynasty imperial guards

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## no_name

Couple of illustrations, probably Han dynasty general with leather armour:

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## siegecrossbow

Thnx for the pictures noname   . Looks like you are a fan of ancient Chinese military history as well? What history forums do you frequent?

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## Chinese-Dragon

Hey no_name, thank you for the beautiful pictures.

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## Water Car Engineer

Tang emperor 






Han emperor

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## no_name

I guess you could say I'm a military fan. I don't frequent any particular forum and it is only in the last year or so that i starting research into china's military history.

I feel due to some confucian scholar nonsense this country supresses it's military exploits. (not counting the red army tales)

Google image search is my friend and most of my pic above you can find at :
OLD...History forum: Some pix of historical Chinese soldiers

loading all those pic to imageshack and then linking them here was alot of work.

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## siegecrossbow

no_name said:


> I guess you could say I'm a military fan. I don't frequent any particular forum and it is only in the last year or so that i starting research into china's military history.
> 
> I feel due to some confucian scholar nonsense this country supresses it's military exploits. (not counting the red army tales)
> 
> Google image search is my friend and most of my pic above you can find at :
> OLD...History forum: Some pix of historical Chinese soldiers
> 
> loading all those pic to imageshack and then linking them here was alot of work.



Thnx for your effort. I shall continue in your footsteps lol.

I think we've seen enough armor. Time to go on the offensive and start talking about the weapons.

A lot of the fancier weapons in Chinese military fiction like the Fang tian hua Ji (a type of halberd) and Guandao (Chinese broadsword) weren't actually invented until the Tang and Song Dynasties, respectively and remained relatively rare even after their invention. 

Here are the illustrations of those beautiful weapons:

Fang tian Ji (keep in mind that the halberd with two crescents is the true Fang tian hua Ji. The one with one crescent is the Qing Long Ji (green dragon halberd)):






Guan dao:

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## Chinese-Dragon

no_name said:


> I feel due to some confucian scholar nonsense this country supresses it's military exploits. (not counting the red army tales)



Yeah, I've heard too much about the Red Army in school. The Long March was impressive, no doubt, but there should be more focus on Ancient China.

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## siegecrossbow

Chinese-Dragon said:


> Yeah, I've heard too much about the Red Army in school. The Long March was impressive, no doubt, but there should be more focus on Ancient China.



Wait they taught you about the Red Army in Hong Kong? At what level of education did you start learning about it?

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## siegecrossbow

Here is an interesting video from Ancient Discoveries, a show on the History Channel that is a refreshing departure from the usual WWII fair and shows on Aliens/truckers . This clip is from an episode on Chinese weaponry where crossbows and early firearms were also covered. Unfortunately I can't find other parts to the video.

This clip is on ancient Chinese MRLs. Enjoy.

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## Chinese-Dragon

siegecrossbow said:


> Wait they taught you about the Red Army in Hong Kong? At what level of education did you start learning about it?



I went to an International High school in HK (Island School), and we learned about contemporary Chinese history at GCSE level.

Started off with the 1911 revolution (Sun Yat-Sen etc.) and then we spent forever talking about the Chinese Civil war, the Sino-Japanese war, the Long march, etc.

The education system in Hong Kong is quite pro-China in my experience. After all, 95&#37; of people in Hong Kong are Han Chinese, so it's our history too. It makes sense that we would be learning about our own history, right?

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## siegecrossbow

Chinese-Dragon said:


> I went to an International High school in HK (Island School), and we learned about contemporary Chinese history at GCSE level.
> 
> Started off with the 1911 revolution (Sun Yat-Sen etc.) and then we spent forever talking about the Chinese Civil war, the Sino-Japanese war, the Long march, etc.
> 
> The education system in Hong Kong is quite pro-China in my experience. After all, 95% of people in Hong Kong are Han Chinese, so it's our history too. It makes sense that we would be learning about our own history, right?



Nice to know that they place such an emphasis on history in Hong Kong. I read, much to my shock, that some post 90 youths in the mainland didn't even know about the Long March.

Since you like ancient history so much I think it is only appropriate that we keep up with the theme of ancient Chinese weapons. Here is a interesting video clip about the Triple-bow siegecrossbow (yes my name sake ). It is in Chinese, unfortunately, but you can guess what the content is fairly easily.

ÖÐ»ªÎä¹¦È«¼¯Ö®´²×Óåó ÔÚÏß¹Û¿´ - ¿á6ÊÓÆµ

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## Speeder 2

siegecrossbow said:


> Correct. Guess what I am going to bring up next:
> 
> China was at the forefront of siege weaponry for much of her history. We produced innovations such as the triple-bow siegecrossbow, multi-shot crossbow, traction trebuchets, and early gunpowder weapons like the huochong and rocket launchers. One thing that bugged me, however, is the fact that although China invented trebuchets they never utilized the counterweight trebuchet, an Arabic innovation. Instead of using large counterweights to power the weapon hundreds of men are used to yank on ropes tethered to the catapult. Although I think that traction catapults are suitable for smaller catapults due to the ease of operation and faster rate of fire, counterweight trebuchets are far better for large scaled weapons. As a matter of fact the Arab engineers helped demolish the walls of Xiangyang during the Mongol siege. Any ideas on why that is the case?



Apologies that I was off for some days.

NO, I dunno way so, please explain why. I would be reading your analysis with a great interest.

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## Speeder 2

Good to read some much needed Chinese history here. Pls keep it coming guys.

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## Chinese-Dragon

siegecrossbow said:


> Nice to know that they place such an emphasis on history in Hong Kong. I read, much to my shock, that some post 90 youths in the mainland didn't even know about the Long March.
> 
> Since you like ancient history so much I think it is only appropriate that we keep up with the theme of ancient Chinese weapons. Here is a interesting video clip about the Triple-bow siegecrossbow (yes my name sake ). It is in Chinese, unfortunately, but you can guess what the content is fairly easily.



Thanks for the video. 

My Mandarin must be improving (but I still had to use the Chinese subtitles for some parts).

Do some Chinese students in the mainland really not know about the Long March? I can't believe that Hong Kong teaches more about that than the mainland does.

As before, I would like to see History lessons moving away from putting too much emphasis on &#30334;&#24180;&#22269;&#32827;, because I want to learn more about China in our glory days, i.e. Ancient China. I hate the constant victim mentality that comes with bai nian guo chi (although it is important to remember it).

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## Water Car Engineer

*Battle of Talas*

*Abbasid Caliphate vs Tang Dynasty*

The Battle of Talas (&#24603;&#32645;&#26031;&#26371;&#25136 (&#1605;&#1593;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1606;&#1607;&#1585; &#1591;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587 in 751 AD was a conflict between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang Dynasty for control of the Syr Darya. On July 751, The Abbasids started a massive attack against the Chinese on the banks of the Talas river; 200,000 Muslim troops (according to Chinese estimates) met the combined army of 10,000 Tang Chinese and 20,000 Karluks mercenary. Out of 10,000 Tang troops, only 2000 managed to return from Talas to their territory in Central Asia.

The defeat was due to the defection of Karluk mercenaries and the retreat of Ferghana allies who originally supported the Chinese. The Karluks forces, which composed two thirds of the Tang army, deserted the Chinese coalition and changed to the Muslim side while the battle was ongoing. With the Karluk troops attacking the Tang army from the rear and the Arab attacking from the front, the Tang troops were unable to hold their positions. The commander of the Tang forces, Gao Xianzhi, recognized that defeat was imminent and managed to escape with some of his Tang regulars with the help of Li Siye. Despite losing the battle, Li did inflict heavy losses on the pursuing Arab army after being reproached by Duan Xiushi. After the battle, Gao was prepared to organize another Tang army against the Arabs when the devastating An Shi Rebellion broke out in 755. When the Tang capital was taken by rebels, all Chinese armies stationed in Central Asia were ordered back to China proper to crush the rebellion.

The Chinese name Daluosi (&#24603;&#32599;&#26031;, Talas) was first seen in the account of Xuanzang. Du Huan located the city near the western drain of the Chui River. The exact location of the battle has not been confirmed but is believed to be near Talas in present day Kyrgyzstan.

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## Water Car Engineer

*China from Mongol rule to the Ming*

Rebellion against Mongol Rule

The Mongols in China were ruling with a great variety of administrators, military personnel and hangers on -- Turks, Arabs, a few Europeans, Jurchen and Persians. The Mongols were following their tradition of supporting a variety of faiths -- not only Buddhism but Islam, Taoism and the Christianity that was practiced by some of the Mongols in China. And under Mongol rule Confucian influence at the royal court declined.

China's Mongol emperor, Kubilai Khan, died in 1294 at the age of seventy-nine. His grandson, Temur Oljeitu, succeeded him, made peace with Japan and maintained reasonable prosperity. Temur Oljeitu was a conscientious and energetic emperor, but the emperors who followed him after his early death in 1307 were of lesser quality than he or Kubilai Khan. In the twenty-six years between 1307 and 1333 seven emperors ruled.

Temur Oljeitu's nephew, Khaishan, ruled from 1308. He appointed people without talent to positions of government, including Buddhist and Taoist clergy, and he spent money lavishly on palaces and temples and tripled the supply of paper money. Following his death in 1311 his brother, Ayrubarwada, took power at age twenty-six. However competent Ayrubarwada was as a ruler, opposition rose against him at court by those who saw him as too sympathetic with the Chinese. He died in 1320, and his eldest son, Shidebala, succeeded him at the age of eighteen. Shidebala initiated anti-corruption reforms, sided with Tibetan Buddhists against Muslims and was assassinated in 1323. He was succeeded by Yesun Temur, who was most oriented toward Mongol traditions. His supporters had been involved in the assassination of Shidebala, and he distanced himself from them and returned to the Mongol tradition of treating religions impartially. Yesun Temur died in 1328 and the youngest son of Khaishan, Tugh Temur, 24-years-old, ruled for a month before he abdicated in favor of an elder brother, Khoshila, and returned to power within a year after Koshila's death -- possibly a murder. Tugh Temur was skilled in Chinese. He was a painter, supported education, lived modestly and dismissed over 10,000 from the imperial staff. Tugh Temur died in 1332.

Following Tugh Temur as emperor in 1333 was the thirteen-year-old, Toghun Temur, reputed to be the son of Koshila. From the beginning of his reign Toghan Temur's ministers ran state affairs. His first minister was concerned with what he saw as Mongol weakness in China. He re-imposed segregation between the Mongols and Chinese; decreed that Chinese were not to learn Mongolian; confiscated weapons and iron tools from the Chinese; outlawed Chinese opera and storytelling; and he considered extermination.
Rebellion and the Ming

Chinese opposition to Mongol rule increased. The Mongols were different from the Chinese not only in speech but in dress and other habits, and the Chinese looked upon the Mongols as barbarians. They disliked Mongol table manners, and they thought the Mongols smelled. [note]

Mongols culture excluded frequent bathing -- the result of their living with a scarcity of water. They saw lake water as holy and washing clothes in it as pollution.

The Mongol military machine had declined. Common Mongol troops had been put to work farming to support themselves using slaves. Across decades of peace, the ability at warfare of the Mongol warriors had deteriorated. Some of these Mongol warriors had also failed as farmers and had lost their farms. Some had become vagrants, while Mongol army officers remained as a salaried aristocracy segregated from the common Mongol soldier.

Plague had broken out among Mongols in the Crimea in 1347, and plague ravaged Mongols in China. Floods disrupted the country. Mongol military garrisons continued to rule at strategic points in China, but the Mongols were greatly outnumbered and were not prepared to contend with a great rebellion.

Mongol military commanders began running the government, and Toghun Temur passed into semi-retirement. He is reported to have taken pleasure only in boy catamites and in prayer with Buddhist monks from Tibet. Toghun Temur's debauchery and his devotion to Tibetan Buddhism added to Confucianist grievances. And opposition to Toghun Temur arose also among Buddhists. A secret Buddhist sect, the White Lotus, began organizing for revolution and prophesied the coming of a Buddhist messiah. [note]

Described by Ren&#233; Grousset in The Rise and Splendour of the Chinese Empire, University of California press, 1964, p. 258, 1964.

Mongol rule in China was about 76 years-old when, in 1352, a rebellion took shape around Guangzhou. A Buddhist monk and former boy beggar, Zhu Yuanzhang, threw off his vestments, joined the rebellion, and his exceptional intelligence took him to the head of a rebel army. By 1355 the rebellion had spread through much of China, accompanied by anarchy. Zhu Yuanzhang won people to his side by forbidding his soldiers to pillage. In 1356, Zhu Yuanzhang captured Nanjing and made it his capital, and there he won the help of Confucian scholars who issued pronouncements for him and performed rituals in his claim of the Mandate of Heaven. And he defeated other rebel armies.

Meanwhile the Mongols were fighting among themselves, inhibiting their ability to quell the rebellion. In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang extended his rule to Guangzhou -- the same year that the Mongol ruler, Toghan Temur, fled to Karakorum. Zhu Yuanzhang and his army entered the former Mongol capital, Beijing. In 1371 his army moved through Sichuan. By 1387 -- after more than thirty years of war -- Zhu Yuanzhang had liberated all of China. And as China's emperor he had taken the title Hong-wu and founded a new dynasty -- the Ming.

China from Mongol rule to the Ming, 1294 to 1420

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## gpit

Chinese history is also a mixture of glory and shame, brilliance and darkness &#8211; it is nevertheless very unique and distinct in this world. 

To give a systematic view of Chinese history, I believe the following timeline table is useful. Details see Timeline of Chinese history - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Many of you may be interested in correlating dynasties in West or Mideast or Arabic or anywhere with those in China... 

---- Dynasty	---------------------------	Years

Three Sovereigns and the Five Emperors	&#19977;&#30343;&#20116;&#24093;	s&#257;n hu&#225;ng w&#468; d&#236; before 2070 BC	628+
Xia Dynasty	&#22799;	xi&#224; 2070&#8211;1600 BC	470
Shang Dynasty	&#21830;	sh&#257;ng 1600&#8211;1046 BC	554
Western Zhou Dynasty	&#35199;&#21608;	x&#299; zh&#333;u	1046&#8211;771 BC	275 
Eastern Zhou Dynasty &#26481;&#21608; / &#19996;&#21608;	d&#333;ng zh&#333;u 770&#8211;256 BC	514
Traditionally divided into 
Spring and Autumn Period &#26149;&#31179;	ch&#363;n qi&#363; 722&#8211;476 BC 246
Warring States Period &#25136;&#22283; / &#25112;&#22269; zh&#224;n gu&#243; 475&#8211;221 BC 254
Qin Dynasty	&#31206;	q&#237;n 221&#8211;206 BC	15
Western Han Dynasty	&#35199;&#28450; / &#35199;&#27721;	x&#299; h&#224;n 206 BC&#8211;9 AD	215
Xin Dynasty	&#26032;	x&#299;n 9&#8211;23	14
Eastern Han Dynasty	&#26481;&#28450; / &#19996;&#27721;	d&#333;ng h&#224;n 25&#8211;220	195
Three Kingdoms	&#19977;&#22283; / &#19977;&#22269;	s&#257;n gu&#243; 220&#8211;265	45
Western Jin Dynasty	&#35199;&#26185; / &#35199;&#26187;	x&#299; j&#236;n 265&#8211;317	52
Eastern Jin Dynasty	&#26481;&#26185; / &#19996;&#26187;	d&#333;ng j&#236;n 317&#8211;420	103
Southern and Northern Dynasties	&#21335;&#21271;&#26397;	n&#225;n b&#283;i ch&#225;o 420&#8211;589	169
Sui Dynasty	&#38539;	su&#237; 581&#8211;618	37
Tang Dynasty	&#21776;	t&#225;ng 618&#8211;907	289
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms	&#20116;&#20195;&#21313;&#22283; / &#20116;&#20195;&#21313;&#22269;	w&#468; d&#224;i sh&#237; gu&#243; 907&#8211;960	53
Northern Song Dynasty	&#21271;&#23435;	b&#283;i s&#242;ng 960&#8211;1127	167
Southern Song Dynasty	&#21335;&#23435;	n&#225;n s&#242;ng 1127&#8211;1279	152
Liao Dynasty	&#36988; / &#36797;	li&#225;o 916&#8211;1125	209
Jin Dynasty	&#37329;	j&#299;n 1115&#8211;1234	119
Yuan Dynasty	&#20803;	yu&#225;n 1271&#8211;1368	97
Ming Dynasty	&#26126;	m&#237;ng 1368&#8211;1644	276
Shun Dynasty	&#38918;	sh&#249;n 1644	<1
Qing Dynasty	&#28165;	q&#299;ng 1644&#8211;1911	268
Empire of China	&#20013;&#21326;&#24093;&#22269;	Zh&#333;nghu&#225; D&#236;gu&#243;	(Yuan Shikai)	1915&#8211;1916	<1

-----------------------

Following diagram is very rough: even in one dynasty, the torritory was always changing.

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## gpit

*Are Chinese descendants of an African Eve? *

Professor Jin Li of the Research Center of Contemporary Anthropology at Shanghai Fudan University (RCCASFU) says he has proved modern Chinese people originated in Africa. His research, based on DNA testing techniques that have transformed the study of human evolution, supports the global scientific consensus that all modern humans are descended from people who migrated from Africa tens of thousands of years ago. The so-called "out-of-Africa" theory is the current scientific consensus and seems to be based on convincing genetic data.

But archeologists have spent decades studying the fossil remains of ancient populations of hominids that lived in China long before the African migrants arrived. The question arises  what happened to these early humans? Were they killed off by the newcomers? Is it possible that the two populations interbred, and would that help explain some puzzling physical differences between modern East Asians and people in Africa and elsewhere? Despite the DNA evidence, some Chinese archeologists continue to defend a multi-regional theory of human evolution  in which different populations around the world evolved from local hominids independently.


*All modern humans are descended from a 200,000-year-old African woman*

Professor Jin published first his research in 2001, but he was not the first to reach essentially the similar conclusions. In 1987 the New Zealander Allan Charles Wilson and Rebecca Cann published a study of mitochondrial DNA that supported the "African Eve" theory  that all human beings living today are descendents of a single woman who lived in Africa around 200,000 years ago. According to Wilson and Cann descendents of this "African Eve" migrated around the world and later evolved into the different varieties of modern humans.

Since then more and more genetic evidence has accumulated, all supporting the view that modern humans, including Chinese people, originated from a single population in Africa. In 1998, Chinese scientist Chu Jiayou and his team analyzed the DNA microsatellites (also known as simple sequence repeats) of northern and southern Chinese, both those of Han and ethnic minorities. Chu concluded that the ancestors of the modern Chinese had migrated to China from Africa via South Asia.

As the mutation rate of DNA microsatellites is high, it is not the best method available for researching ancient human migration and the evolution process. Su Bing and other scientists from the Kunming Institute of Zoology proposed an alternative approach using single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the Y-chromosome (Y-SNP). This was the approach used by Prof. Jin Li and associate professor Li Hui.

*DNA molecules point to a startling conclusion*

Jin chose the Y-chromosome because it is relatively pure from a genetic perspective. Human beings have two sets of chromosomes, X and Y, inherited from our mothers and fathers respectively. The Y-chromosome comes from male and has a low mutation rate. It reflects how human genes are passed on from generation to generation more clearly than the X chromosome. As a result, geneticists see it as ideal material for the study of human origins.

Jin and his team focused on three SNPs on the Y-chromosome  M89, M130 and YAP. They are mutations of another mutated DNA molecule M168, which originated in Africa between 31,000 and 79,000 years ago.

"M168 originated only in East Africans. All people outside Africa and some Africans still have it. So it is the most direct evidence to prove that modern humans came from Africa." Jin wrote in his paper.

*How do scientists work out the age of strand of DNA?*

You may ask: How do scientists work out the age of a DNA component? How do scientists know M168 existed in ancient Africa? How do they work out exactly when it originated?

Associate Professor Li Hui said that non-genic DNA sequences are used in molecular anthropology because genes possess many physiological functions. If a gene mutates, a person's health may be greatly affected.

There are two fundamental features of the materials Jin and his team chose: they were non-genic and genetic haploid. Mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosomes belong to this category. Most of the Y-chromosome consists of non-genic sequences. The team analyzed two types of mutation of the non-genic sequence. The first was SNP. This type of mutation is rare and stable. It will not repeat or change back to its original form. The structural relationships of all types of Y-chromosome all over the world are based on this feature. The other type of mutation was short tandem repeats (STR). These lengthen and shorten at a constant speed. Thus the origin of each type of Y chromosome can be dated by dividing the total number of mutations by the rate of mutation.

In other words analysis of SNP and SRT mutations show when the M168 mutation occurred.

*DNA from modern Chinese proves their African origins*

Jin Li and his team randomly selected 9,988 Chinese males as samples. They found that all samples of M89, M130, and YAP led to only three mutations. 9,329 samples (93.4 percent) mutated into M89T&#12289;M130C and YAP-; 370 samples (3.7 percent) mutated into M89C&#12289;M130T and YAP-. 290 samples (2.9 percent) mutated into M89C&#12289;M130C and YAP+. No new mutation was found. The results coincided with findings in other parts of the world, that is, M168 displayed no new mutations in China. The result proved that Chinese people must have come from Africa, along with all other modern humans. But Jin Li's research also supported the African origin theory from another perspective, which was beyond their original expectations.

*Tracing human migration routes using DNA*

Besides trying to find evidence to prove one way or another whether Chinese people had an independent origin, Jin and his team wanted to study the genetic differences among people living in different parts of China by investigating the distribution frequency of the three ancient Y-chromosomes.

The molecular genetic structure of each ethnic group has its own particular characteristics. By analyzing the mutation process of M89, M130 and YAP, they figured out the distribution and migration routes of the different ethnic groups in China. For example, most samples that mutated into M89T, M130C and YAP- were from Han Chinese individuals. The other two types of mutation were more common in ethnic minorities.

Li Hui tested his own DNA to see where his ancestors came from. His Y-chromosome is type 01, which originated around Beibu Bay and the west of Hainan Province about 20,000 years ago. Type 01 then traveled to Guangdong, Taiwan and Fujian about 10,000 years ago and moved to the coastal areas of Jiangsu and Zhejiang 8,000 years ago. So Li's ancestors must have followed the same route.

Scientists use similar methods to tell how the original Africans migrated around the world. Li Shilin, a teacher at RCCASFU, says human ancestors didn't have any specific destination. They roamed wherever was favorable for their survival. Judging by the geographic and environmental conditions at the time, our African ancestors probably traveled along the coast where they could find food both on land and in the sea. As the population increased they moved to other parts of the world, including China. Why did the African migrants survive but not the original Chinese? Though ancient Africans survived the formidable difficulties and managed to travel to China thousands of years ago, why do geneticists claim they are ancestors of Chinese? What happened to the original primitive human inhabitants of China? Is it possible that modern Chinese people are descendents of these early native hominids or the result of interbreeding between them and the African migrants? Jin and his team originally took this possibility into consideration. After all, many ancient human fossils had been discovered in Asia, especially in China. Their shapes and timelines displayed continuity and the inheritance of traits. To allow for this possibility, Jin's team collected their samples from all over China to see if they could find a different mutation of M168. But they found nothing new. Their conclusion remained that the ancestor of all modern Chinese people was a pure-blooded African. How did the original human population of China disappear?

Regarding the question, what happened to the original hominid population of China, Jin Li pointed out that there is a 60,000 year gap in the human fossil record. All ancient human fossils are older than 100,000 years, while modern human fossils are all less than 40,000 years old (and mostly 10,000 to 30,000 years old). That means no human fossils from 50,000 to 100,000 years old, that might support the hypothesis of multi-regional evolution, have yet been found in China. Jin Li believes this gap is not accidental. During that 50,000 year period, the majority of biological species on the East Asian mainland became extinct.

That fossil gap corresponds to the Quaternary ice age, which killed off the majority of species, including indigenous humans, in East Asia, as well as other parts of the world. But in Africa, near the equator, where the temperature remained relatively high, ancient human beings were able to survive and reproduce. Kong Xinggong from the School of Geographical Sciences of Nanjing Normal University, said that during the ice age, the average temperature in the equatorial regions was only 1-2 &#8451; lower than now, while closer to the poles, the temperature dropped dramatically.

This explains why equatorial Africans survived, while the ancient human populations from other parts of world disappeared. The Neanderthals became extinct in Europe about 20,000 years ago, at the height of the ice age there. After the ice age, Africans migrated from Southeast Asia into Chinese mainland, replaced ancient pre-glacial man there, and became the ancestors of the modern Chinese.

Professor Jin Li sees the African origin of the Chinese people as a hard fact, but not everyone agrees. Some scientists say it is wrong to rely solely on genetics to establish the origins of modern humans.

Academician Wu Xinzhi from Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, believes that the ancient human population on the Chinese mainland did not die out, but evolved into modern Chinese. In other words, modern Chinese people have a direct lineal descent from the original hominid inhabitants. On what does Wu base his argument and can it stand up to scrutiny?

*The history of modern humans starts with late Homo sapiens.*

Dr. Xing Song from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, CAS, says we must first define what we mean by the origin of modern man. It is a completely different concept from the origin of mankind. The latter refers to when and where the ancient apes evolved into people; while the origin of modern man refers to when and where people who look like modern humans originated. The academic view is that modern humans, the latest phase in the history of human evolution, i.e. late Homo sapiens, appeared in the period from around 50,000 to 10,000 years ago.

Except for some particular characteristics, late Homo sapiens are basically the same as today's humans. Their fossils are widely distributed not only in Asia, Africa, and Europe but also in Australia and the Americas.

Remains of late Homo sapiens dating back to between 50,000 to 37,000 years ago have been found all over China. The finds include Hetao man in Erdos, Inner Mongolia; Liujiang Man, dating back 50,000 to 30,000 years, in Liujiang County, Guangxi; the Upper cave man, dating back 30,000 years, in Zhoukoudian, near Beijing; and Ziyang man dating back 10,000 years, in Ziyang City, Sichuan.

Professor Jin Li maintains that late Homo sapiens from all over the world, including China, had common ancestors, that is, migrating Africans, who arrived in China 60,000 years ago.

*China has been continuously settled by humans since the earliest times*

But despite the seemingly conclusive genetic evidence, Professor Wu Xinzhi insists the debate between "single-region evolution" and "multi-region evolution," is not settled. He maintains that Africa is not the only origin of modern humans, but that modern man evolved separately in several parts of world. He believes there is ample evidence that at least some of the ancestors of modern Chinese were native to the area.

From the 1920s on, archaeologists discovered large numbers of ancient human fossils in China. According to Professor Wu, different populations of ancient humans lived in overlapping periods. Yuanmou Man in Yunnan Province dates back 1,700,000 years, Shaanxi Lantian Man 1,150,000 to 600,000 years, Peking Man 500,000 to 200,000 years, Shandong Yiyuan man 400,000 years, Anhui Hexian 300,000 to 200,000 years and Guangdong Maba Man 100,000 years.

Ancient human fossils found in China

Homo erectus 
Yuanmou Man 
1,700,000 years ago, in Yuanmou County of Yunnan Province

Lantian Man 
1,150,000 to 600,000 years ago, in Lantian County of Shaanxi Province

No. 1 Nanjing Man
600,000 years ago, Tangshan of Nanjing

Peking Man 
500,000 to 200,000 years ago, Zhoukoudian of Beijing

Yiyuan Man
400,000 years ago, Yiyuan of Shandong Province

Early Homo sapiens
Dali Man
230,000 to 180,000 years ago, Dali of Shaanxi Province

Maba Man
200,000 to 160,000 years ago, Maba of Guangdong Province

Changyang Man
195,000 years ago, Changyang of Hubei Province

Late Homo sapiens
Upper Cave Man 
30,000 years ago, Zhoukoudian of Beijing

Liujiang Man
50,000 to 30,000 years ago, Liujiang County of Guangxi Province




The fossil record shows that in China there have always been different populations of ancient humans. Therefore, it remains possible that today's Chinese people are directly descended from them. But there is a major problem facing the proponents of the multi-regional thesis: in China fossils from different eras are rarely found in the same location. This implies the different populations were unrelated and casts doubt on the thesis of continuity of settlement.

Wu says this is because not all of the ancient human remains were fossilized and became available to later generations. Essentially he is saying there are haphazard gaps in the fossil record.

*Is Nanjing Man the ancestor of the modern Chinese?*

Xu Hankui, a researcher from the Nanjing Paleontology Institute, who discovered the fossil remains of Nanjing Man, also supports the hypothesis of multi-regional evolution. When fossilized skulls of Nanjing Man were discovered by peasants exploring an ancient lava cave, Nanjing Paleontology Institute sent several experts on a field trip. Xu was among them and participated in the study of the fossils.

Later, the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology showed that one of the skulls was of a 21 to 35-year-old women who lived 600,000 years ago and suffered from a bone disease called periostitis. She had many of the characteristics of Beijing Homo erectus, and genetic connections with other ancient Chinese human fossils. Another skull was from a male somewhere in the transitional phase between Homo erectus to Homo sapiens. There was gap of 100,000 years between the two skulls, and the finds showed evidence of continuous evolution of ancient Chinese human populations.

Xu Hankui believes that the Nanjing Man finds are evidence of multi-regional evolution.

*The puzzle of Chinese people's shovel-shaped front teeth*

One of the puzzles that the out-of-Africa theory needs to account for is the prevalence of *shovel-shaped front teeth among the modern Chinese population*. Dr. Xing Song says the distinctively-shaped teeth are prevalent in the Mongoloid race in East Asia. Licking their inside front teeth, Chinese people will find that there's a dent in their upper teeth while the surfaces of the lower ones are even. From the inside, the upper teeth look like shovels. According to Xing, these peculiarly shaped teeth were inherited in a continuous line from early Chinese hominids. About 80 percent of Chinese have such upper front teeth in contrast to only 5 percent of Europeans and 10 percent of Africans. Xing says this is strong evidence of the continuity of human evolution in China.

Moreover, hominid fossils in China share the same facial features: comparatively flat faces, a larger angle between the nose and the forehead, a flat nose bridge, rectangular eye sockets and forward-projecting cheekbones. All these features are absent in Africans.

Early Chinese lacked advanced stone technology seen in Africa. The stone artifacts unearthed in China also present difficulties for the out-of-Africa theory. In Palestine, archaeologists discovered stone artifacts from 100,000 years ago. These artifacts, very sophisticated and skillfully made, belong to the third phase of stone artifacts, much more advanced than the first and second phases. Palestine is an obvious route for African hominids to travel to the Eurasian Continent. If the geneticists are right, the African ancestors of the modern Chinese left Africa about 100,000 years ago, and passed through Palestine before reaching China some 60,000 years ago. Logically, the trekking Africans should have had the skills to make third phase stone artifacts when they arrived in China, and we would expect to find such artifacts.

But the fact is that the most basic stone artifacts, dating back 1.7 million years ago, were still in use on the Chinese mainland 30,000 years ago. About 98 percent of stone artifacts used by Chinese hominids belong to the "first phase." If migrating Africans were the ancestors of modern Chinese, why didn't they carry their advanced stone-working skills to China?

Huang Wanbo, a research fellow of the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology of Chinese Academy of Sciences, has been conducting paleoanthropological research for more than 20 years in the Three Gorges area. He says that just as the physical characteristics of East Asian hominid fossils can be traced back to a single origin, so can the artifacts of ancient East Asian cultures. For example, the "hand-axe" was one of the important African stone artifacts, dating back 1.7 million years. Most were made of obsidian formed by volcanic eruptions. In contrast, the ancient Chinese mostly used choppers and crushers made of quartz.

Gao Xing, another research fellow, echoed his colleague's opinion, saying that Chinese culture had developed continuously without interruption since remote antiquity and there was no sign that it had ever been replaced by foreign cultures.

*Chinese may be "hybrid" descendants of "natives" and African migrants*

Wu doesn't rule out that Chinese people interbred with African or European migrants but maintains this was relatively rare.

There is evidence of genetic exchanges between ancient Chinese and Europeans and Southeast Asians. Unlike the rectangular eye sockets of most Chinese hominid fossils, the Maba skulls unearthed in south China's Guangdong Province had round orbits, which may have come from interbreeding with Europeans. Another example is the bulging occipital bone in skulls discovered in Guangxi. Similar skulls were also discovered in Sichuan and Yunnan. The characteristics are also typical of Europeans. Moreover, some ancient Chinese skulls also exhibit high nose bridges, which could come from either European or African ancestors.

Xu Hankui says the similarities between the skulls of Nanjing Man and European and African Homo erectus and Homo sapiens prove that hybridization took place during the evolution of the modern Chinese.

Wu says hybridization became more frequent as human travels covered a wider area. Foreign genes gradually changed the original Chinese type. As a result some modern Chinese have rectangular eye sockets and some have round ones.

*Can human history be inferred from fossil DNA?*

According to Xu, inferring human history from tests on modern human DNA is an uncertain approach. But why can't we use DNA from fossils?

As early as 1974, scientists successfully collected mitochondrial DNA from 60,000-year-old remains in southeast Australia. They concluded the DNA had no connection with other DNA discovered in specimens of early Man known to have originated in Africa. At the time, the result cast doubt on the idea that modern humans originated in Africa.

But Xu said DNA collected from fossils is unreliable because after being buried for millions of years it could be polluted by other materials, especially water. He says only DNA collected from the insects preserved in amber can reliably be used in genetic research.

Wu cites an article by Chinese American, Wen-hsiung Li, who argues that the genetic research done so far is relatively limited in scope and that much more evidence needs to be gathered before final conclusions can be drawn.

So while the genetic evidence points strongly to the African origin of all modern humans, including the Chinese, dissenting archeologists maintain the fossil record supports some version of the multi-regional hypothesis and suggest DNA evidence alone is inconclusive. Obviously, this complex debate is set to continue.

Are Chinese descendants of an African Eve? - China.org.cn
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A very complex story... and this isn't conclusive... perhaps never to be.

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## silent hill

who invented the chinese alphabets in the first place, very strange language :S


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## gpit

silent hill said:


> who invented the chinese alphabets in the first place, very strange language :S



I think most written languages are started with pictograph. Most other languages were gradually turning into alphabetic, but Chinese one is still on pictographic way.



> Early written symbols were based on pictographs (pictures which resemble what they signify) and ideograms (symbols which represent ideas). They were used by the ancient Chinese culture since around 5000 BC and began to develop into logographic writing systems around 2000 BC. Pictographs are still in use as the main medium of written communication in some non-literate cultures in Africa, The Americas, and Oceania. Pictographs are often used as simple, pictorial, representational symbols by most contemporary cultures.
> 
> Pictogram - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia



Check out this wiki to see how Cangjie legendarily created the Chinese letters. 


> Cangjie (simplified Chinese: &#20179;&#39049;; traditional Chinese: &#20489;&#38945;; pinyin: c&#257;ngji&#233;; Wade&#8211;Giles: Ts'ang-chieh) is a very important figure in ancient China (c. 2650 BC), claimed to be an official historian of the Yellow Emperor and the inventor of Chinese characters.[1] Legend has it that he had four eyes and four pupils,  and that when he invented the characters, the deities and ghosts cried and the sky rained millet. He is considered a legendary figure rather than a historical figure, or at least, not considered to be sole inventor of Chinese characters.
> 
> 
> Cangjie - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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## no_name

Story time :

The Yellow Emperor felt that the rope tying method of recording information is inefficient and restrictive and therefore asked Cangjie to develop a new method of recording information. Cangjie sit down and began to think but no ideas came. 

After a while he looked up and saw a hoof mark in the ground. Cangjie cannot recogise which animal made the mark so he consulted a hunter, who promply tells him the answer. The hunter states that he can tell various animals from the different marks they made on the ground.

This gives Cangjie a good idea. He thought that if he can find distinctive attributes in different opjects and express them in a visual form then his problem can be solved. Cangjie therefore started to accumulate pictoral expressions for different things, and after a while presented them to the Yellow Emperor, who was delighted and made his officials learn from Cangjie.

Or so the mythology goes.

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## think

is there a darker shade to chinese history than the japanese occupation. i watched a few vids on youtube about the nanking massacre and unit 731. pretty shocking.

fascism has to be hands down the worst and most inhuman ideology of all time.


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## siegecrossbow

Here is a joint Chinese-Japanese film on Dunhuang and its buried treasures. The film was made in the 80s and, in my opinion, made an effort to be historically accurate.

?????? - ?? - ???? - ????

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## Water Car Engineer

think said:


> *is there a darker shade to chinese history than the japanese occupation.* i watched a few vids on youtube about the nanking massacre and unit 731. pretty shocking.
> 
> fascism has to be hands down the worst and most inhuman ideology of all time.



I guess Mongol and Manchurian invasion too. And the rebellions in the early 1900s and late 1800s too.

Everyone has their ups and downs.

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## Kambojaric

Nice info guys, keep it coming. btw Yuan Empire was massive, controlling the mongol tribes must have been one hell of a job!

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## GodlessBastard

*The Journey of Fa Xian to India*




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Between 399 and 414 CE, the Chinese monk Faxian (Fa-Hsien, Fa Hien) undertook a trip via Central Asia to India seeking better copies of Buddhist books than were currently available in China. Although cryptic to the extent that we cannot always be sure where he was, his account does provide interesting information on the conditions of travel and the Buddhist sites and practices he witnessed. For example, he indicates clearly the importance of the seven precious substances for Buddhist worship, the widespread practice of stupa veneration, and his aquaintance with several of the jataka tales about the previous lives of the Buddha Sakyamuni, tales which are illustrated in the paintings at the Dunhuang caves. The extracts below, covering the early part of his journey, are from James Legge, tr. and ed., A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms Being an Account by the Chinese Monk Fa-Hien of His Travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 399-414) in Search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline (Oxford, 1886), pp. 9-36. I have inserted occasional explanations in brackets, rather than attempt to footnote the text.

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Fa-hien had been living in Ch'ang-gan. Deploring the mutilated and imperfect state of the collection of the Books of Discipline....he entered into an engagement with Hwuy-king, Tao-ching, Hwuy-ying and Hwuy-wei that they should go to India and seek for the disciplinary Rules.

After starting from Ch'ang-gan, they passed through Lung [in eastern Gansu]...and reached the emporium of Chang-yih [north and west of Lanzhou, near the Great Wall]. There they found the country so much disturbed that travelling on the roads was impossible for them. Its king, however, was very attentive to them [and] kept them (in his capital)...

Here they met with Che-yen, Hwuy-keen, Sang-shao, Pao-yun, and Sang-king; and in pleasant association with them, as bound on the same journey with themselves, they passed the summer retreat (of that year [i.e., 400 CE])together, resuming after it their traveling, and going on to T'un-hwang, (the chief town) in the frontier territory of defence extending for about 8o li from east to west, and about 40 from north to south. Their company, increased as it had been, halted there for some days more than a month, after which Fa-hien and his four friends started first in the suite of an envoy, having separated (for a time) from Pao~yun and his associates.

Le Hao, the prefect of T'un-hwang, had supplied them with the means of crossing the desert (before them), in which there are many evil demons and hot winds. (Travellers) who encounter them perish all to a man. There is not a bird to be seen in the air above, nor an animal on the ground below. Though you look all round most earnestly to find where you can cross, you know not where to make your choice, the only mark and indication being the dry bones of the dead (left upon the sand).

After travelling for seventeen days, a distance we may calculate of about 1500 li, (the pilgrims) reached the kingdom of Shen-shen [=?Lou-lan, near Lop Nor], a country rugged and hilly, with a thin and barren soil. The clothes of the common people are coarse, and like those worn in our land of Han, some wearing felt and others coarse serge or cloth of hair;--this was the only difference seen among them. The king professed (our) Law, and there might be in the country more than four thousand monks, who were all students of the Hinayana [Thereavada]. The common people of this and other kingdoms (in that region), as well as the sramans [monks], all practise the rules of India, only that the latter do so more exactly, and the former more loosely. So (the travellers) found it in all the kingdoms through which they went on their way from this to the west, only that each had its own peculiar barbarous speech. (The monks), however, who had (given up the worldly life) and quitted their families, were all students of Indian books and the Indian language. Here they stayed for about a month, and then proceeded on their journey, fifteen days walking to tho north-west bringing them to the country of Woo-e [near Kucha or Karashahr on the northern edge of the Tarim?]. In this also there were more than four thousand monks, all students of the Hinayana. They were very strict in their rules, so that sramans from the territory of Ts-in [i.e., northern China] were all unprepared for their regulations. Fa-hien, through the management of Foo Kung-sun, overseer, was able to remain (with his company in the monastery where they were received) for more than two months, and here they were rejoined by Pao-yun and his friends. (At the end of that time) the people of Woo-e neglected the duties of propriety and righteousness, and treated the strangers in so niggardly a manner that Che-yen, Hwuy-keen, and Hwuy-wei went back towards Kao-ch'ang [Khocho, near Turfan], hoping to obtain there the means of continuing their journey. Fa-hien and the rest, however, through the liberality of Foo Kung-sun, managed to go straight forward in a south-west direction. They found the country uninhabited as they went along. The difficulties which they encountered in crossing the streams and on their route, and the sufferings which they endured, were unparalleled in human experience, but in the course of a month and five days they succeeded in reaching Yu-teen [Khotan].

Yu-teen is a pleasant and prosperous kingdom, with a numerous and flourishing population. The inhabitants all profess our Law, and join together in its religious music for their enjoyment. The monks amount to several myriads, most of whom are students of the Mahyana. They all receive their food from the common store. Throughout the country the houses of the people stand apart like (separate) stars, and each family has a small tope [stupa]reared in front of its door. The smallest of these may be twenty cubits high, or rather more. They make (in the monasteries) rooms for monks from all quarters, the use of which is given to travelling monks who may arrive, and who are provided with whatever else they require.

The lord of the country lodged Fa-hien and the others comfortably, and supplied their wants, in a monastery called Gomati, of the Mahayana school. Attached to it there are three thousand monks, who are called to their meals by the sound of a bell. When they enter the refectory, their demeanour is marked,by a reverent gravity, and they take their seats in regular order, all maintaining a perfect silence. No sound is heard from their alms-bowls and other utensils. When any of these pure men require food, they are not allowed to call out (to the attendants) for it, but only make signs with their hands.

Hwuy-king, Tao-ching, and Hwuy-tah set out in advance towards the country of K'eeh-ch'a; but Fa-hien and the others, wishing to see the procession of images, remained behind for three months. There are in this country four great monasteries, not counting the smaller ones. Beginning on the first day of the fourth month, they sweep and water the streets inside the city, making a grand display in the lanes and byways. Over the city gate they pitch a large tent, grandly adorned in all possible ways, in which the king and queen, with their ladies brilliantly arrayed, take up their residence (for the time).

The monks of the Gomati monastery, being Mahayana students, and held in greatest reverence by the king, took precedence of all the others in the procession. At a distance of three or four li from the city, they made a four-wheeled image car, more than thirty cubits, high, which looked like the great hall (of a monastery) moving along. The seven precious substances [i.e., gold, silver, lapis lazuli, rock crystal, rubies, diamonds or emeralds, and agate] were grandly displayed about it, with silken streamers and canopies harging all around. The (chief) image [presumably Sakyamuni] stood in the middle of the car, with two Bodhisattvas in attendance on it, while devas were made to follow in waiting, all brilliantly carved in gold and silver, and hanging in the air. When (the car) was a hundred paces from the gate, the king put off his crown of state, changed his dress for a fresh suit, and with bare feet, carrying in his hands flowers and incense, and with two rows of attending followers, went out at the gate to meet the image; and, with his head and face (bowed to the ground), he did homage at its feet, and then scattered the flowers and burnt the incense. When the image was entering the gate, the queen and the brilliant ladies with her in the gallery above scattered far and wide all kinds of flowers, which floated about and fell promiscuously to the ground. In this way everything was done to promote the dignity of the occasion. The carriages of the monasteries were all different, and each one had its own day for the procession. (The ceremony) began on the first day of the fourth month, and ended on the fourteenth, after which the king and queen returned to the palace.

Seven or eight li to the west of the city there is what is called the King's New monastery, the building of which took eighty years, and extended over three reigns. It may be 250 cubits in height, rich in elegant carving and inlaid work, covered above with gold and silver, and finished throughout with a combination of all the precious substances. Behind the tope there has been built a Hall of Buddha of the utmost magalficence and beauty, the beams, pillars, venetianed doors, and windows being all overlaid with goldleaf. Besides this, the apartments for the monks are imposingly and elegantly decorated, beyond the power of words to express. Of whatever things of highest value and preciousness the kings in the six countries on the east of the (Ts'ung) range of mountains [probably this means southwestern Xinjiang] are possessed, they contribute the greater portion (to this monastery), using but a small portion of them themselves.

When the processions of images in the fourth month were over, Sang-shao, by himself alone, followed a Tartar who was an earnest follower of the Law, and proceeded towards Kophene [Kabul region?], Fa-hien and the others went forward to the kingdom of Tsze-hoh [?Tashkurgan, ?Baltistan in northern Pakistan], which it took them twenty-five days to reach. Its king was a strenuous follower of our Law, and had (around him) more than a thousand monks, mostly students of the Mahayana. Here (the travellers) abode fifteen days, and then went south for four days, when they found themselves among the Ts'ung-ling mountains, and reached the country of Yu-hwuy, where they halted and kept their retreat. When this was over, they went on among the hills for twenty-five days, and got to K'eeh-ch'a [?Skardu, or a town to the east in Ladak], there rejoining Hwuy-king and his two companions.

It happened that the king of the country was then holding the pancha parishad, that is, in Chinese, the great quinquennial assembly. When this is to be held, the king requests the presence of the sramans from all quarters (of his kingdom). They come (as if) in clouds; and when they are all assembled, their place of session is grandly decorated. Silken streamers and canopies are hung out in it, and waterlilies in gold and silver are made and fixed up behind the places where (the chief of them) are to sit. When clean mats have been spread, and they are all seated, the king and his ministers present their offerings according to rule and law. (The assembly takes place) in the first, second, or third month, for the most part in the spring.

After the king has held the assembly, he further exhorts the ministers to make other and special offerings. The doing of this extends over one, two, three, five, or even seven days; and when all is finished, he takes his own riding-horse, saddles, bridles, and waits on him himself, while he makes the noblest and most important minister of the kingdom mount him. Then, taking fine white woollen cloth, all sorts of precious things, and articles which the sramans require, he distributes them among them, uttering vows at the same time along with all his ministers; and when this distribution has taken place, he again redeems (whatever he wishes) from the monks.

The country, being among the hills and cold, does not produce the other cereals, and only the wheat gets ripe. After the monks have received their annual (portion of this), the mornings suddenly show the hoar-frost, and on this account the king always begs the monks to make the wheat ripen before they receive their portion. There is in the country a spittoon which belonged to Buddha, made of stone, and in colour like his alms-bowl. There is also a tooth of Buddha, for the people have reared a tope, connected with which there are more than a thousand monks and their disciples, all students of the Hinayana. To the east of these hills the dress of the common people is of coarse materials, as in our country of Ts-in, but here also there were among them the differences of fine woollen cloth and of serge or haircloth. The rules observed by the sramans are remarkable, and too numerous to be mentioned in detail. The country is in the midst of the Onion range.

As you go forward from these mountains, the plants, trees, and fruits are all different from those of the land of Han, excepting only the bamboo, pomegranate, and sugar-cane.

From this (the travellers) went westwards towards North India, and after being on the way for a month, they succeeded in getting across and through the range of the Onion mountains. The snow rests on them both winter and summer. There are also among them venomous dragons, which, when provoked, spit forth poisonous winds, and cause showers of snow and storms of sand and gravel. Not one in ten thousand of those who encounter these dangers escapes with his life. The people of the country call the range by the name of 'The Snow mountains.' When (the travellers) had got through them, they were in North India, and immediately on entering its borders, found themselves in a small kingdom called T'o-leih, where also there were many monks, all students of the Hinayana.

In this kingdom there was formerly an Arhat [a disciple of the Buddha who has attained nirvana], who by his supernatural power took a clever artificer up to the Tushita heaven [where bodhisattvas are reborn before appearing on earth as buddhas], to see the height, complexion, and appearance of Maitreya Bodhisattva [the "Buddha of the Future"], and then return and make an image of him in wood. First and last, this was done three times, and then the image was completed, eighty cubits in height, and eight cubits at the base from knee to knee of the crossed legs. On fast-days it emits an effulgent light. The kings of the (surrounding) countries vie with one another in presenting offerings to it. Here it is--to be seen now as of old.

The travellers went on to the south-west for fifteen days (at the foot of the mountains, and) following the course of their range. The way was difficult and rugged, (running along) a bank exceedingly precipitous which rose up there, a hill-like wall of rock, 10,000 cubits from the base. When one approached the edge of it, his eyes became unsteady; and if he wished to go forward in the same direction, there was no place on which he could place his foot; and beneath were the waters of the river called the Indus. In former times men had chiselled paths along the rocks, and distributed ladders on the face of them, to the number altogether of 700, at the bottom of which there was a suspension bridge of ropes, by which the river was crossed, its banks being there eighty paces apart. The (place and arrangements) are to be found in the Records of the Nine Interpreters, but neither Chang K'een [Chang Ch'ien, the Han emissary to the Western Regions] nor Kan Ying [sent west in 88 CE] had reached the spot.

The monks asked Fa-hien if it could be known when the Law of Buddha first went to the east. He replied, 'When I asked the people of those countries about it, they all said that it had been handed down by their fathers from of old that, after the setting up of the image of Maitreya Bodhisattva, there were sramans of India who crossed this river, carrying with them sutras and Books of Discipline. Now the image was set up rather more than 300 years after the nirvana of Buddha, which may be referred to the reign of king P'ing of the Chow dynasty. According to this account we may say that the diffusion of our great doctrines (in the east) began from (the setting up of) this image. If it had not been through that Maitreya, the great spiritual master (who is to be) the successor of the Sakya, who could have caused the "Three Precious Ones" [the precious Buddha, the precious Law, and the precious Monkhood] to be proclaimed so far, and the people of those border lands to know our Law? We know of a truth that the opening of (the way for such) a mystertous propagation is not the work of man; and so the dream of the emperor Ming of Han had its proper cause. [This refers to the belief that a dream of this Han emperor in 61 CE led him to seek out Buddhism and establish it in China.]

After crossing the river, (the travellers) immediately came to the kingdom of Woo-chang [Udyana, north of the Punjab--i.e., Swat in northern Pakistan], which is indeed (a part) of North India. The people all use the language of Central India, 'Central India' being what we should call the 'Middle Kingdom.' The food and clothes of the common people are the same as in that Central Kingdom. The Law of Buddha is very (flourishing in Woo-chang). They call the places where the monks stay (for a time) or reside permanently sangharamas; and of these there are in all 500, the monks being all students of the Hinayana. When stranger bhikshus [i.e., mendicant monks] arrive at one of them, their wants are supplied for three days, after which they are told to find a resting-place for themselves.

There is a tradition that when Buddha came to North India, he came at once to this country, and that here he left a print of his foot, which is long or short according to the ideas of the beholder (on the subject). It exists, and the same thing is true about it, at the present day. Here also are still to be seen the rock on which he dried his clothes, and the place where he converted the wicked dragon. The rock is fourteen cubits high, and more than twenty broad, with one side of it smooth.

Hwuy-king, Hwuy-tah, and Tao-ching went on ahead towards (the place of) Buddha's shadow in the country of Nagara; but Fa-hien and the others remained in Woo-chang, and kept the summer retreat. That over, they descended south, and arrived in the country of Soo-ho-to.

In that country also Buddhism is flourishing. There is in it the place where Sakra [Indra], Ruler of Devas, in a former ages, tried the Bodhisattva, by producing a hawk (in pursuit of a) dove, when (the Bodhisattva) cut off a piece of his own flesh, and (with it) ransomed the dove. [This is the well-known Sibi Jataka, a jataka being a tale relating to an incident involving the Buddha in one of his previous incarnations. The Sibi Jataka is depicted on one of the petroglyphs at Shatial in the Hunza Valley and in several of the caves at Dunhuang.] After Buddha had attained to perfect wisdom , and in travelling about with his disciples (arrived at this spot), he informed them that this was the place where he ransomed the dove with a piece of his own flesh. In this way the people of the country became aware of the fact, and on the spot reared a stupa, adorned with layers of gold and silver plates.

The travellers, going downwards from this towards the east, in five days came to the country of Gandhara, the place where Dharma-vivardhana, the son of Asoka [the Mauryan emperor known as a great patron of Buddhism in the third century BCE], ruled. When Buddha was a Bodhisattva. he gave his eyes also for another man here [another jataka tale]; and at the spot they have also reared a large stupa, adorned with, layers of gold and silver plate The people of the country were mostly students of the Hinayana.

Seven days journey from this to the east brought the travellers to the kingdom of Taxila, which means 'the severed head ' in the language of China. Here, when Buddha was a Bodhisattva, he gave away his head to a man [another jataka tale], and from this circumstance the kingdom got its name.

Going on further for two days to the east, they came to the place where the Bodhisattva threw down his body to feed a starving tigress [the Mahasattva Jataka]. In these two places also large stupas have been built, both adorned with layers of all the precious substances. The kings, ministers, and people. of the kingdoms around vie with one another in making offerings a them. The trains of those who come to scatter flowers and light lamps at them never cease. The nations of those quarters call those (and the other two mentioned before) 'the four great stupas.'

Going southwards from Gandhara, (the travellers) in four days arrived at the kingdom of Purushapura [Peshawar]. Formerly, when Buddha was travelling in this country with his disciples, he said to Ananda, 'After my pari-nirvana, there will be a king named Kanishka [the famous Kushan emperor], who shall on this spot build a stupa. This Kanishka was afterwards born into the world; and (once), when he had gone forth to look about him, S,akra, Ruler of Devas, wishing to excite the idea in his mind, assumed the appearance of a little herd-boy, and was making a stupa right in the way (of the king), who asked what sort of a thing he was making. The boy said, 'I am making a stupa for Buddha. The king said, 'Very good;' and immediately, right over the boy's stupa, he (proceeded to) rear another, which was more than four hundred cubits high, and adorned with layers of all the precious substances. Of all the stupas and temples which (the travellers) saw in their journeyings, there was not one comparable to this in solemn beauty and majestic grandeur. There is a current saying, that this 'is the finest stupa in Jambudvipa'. When the king's stupa was completed, the little stupa (of the boy) came out from its side on the south, rather more than three cubits in height.

Buddha's alms-bowl is in this country. Formerly, a king of Yüeh-shih raised a large force and invaded this country, wishing to carry the bowl away. Having subdued the kingdom, as he and his captains were sincere believers in the Law of Buddha, and wished to carry off the bowl, they proceeded to present their offerings on a great scale. When they had done so to the Three Precious Ones, he made a large elephant be grandly caparisoned, and placed the bowl upon it. But the elephant knelt down on the ground, and was unable, to go forward. Again he caused a four-wheeled waggon to be prepared in which the bowl was put to be conveyed away. Eight elephantd were then yoked to it, and dragged it with their united strength' but neither were they able to go forward. The king knew that the time for an association between himself and the bowl had not yet arrived, and was sad and deeply ashamed of himself. Forthwith he built a stupa at the place and a monastery, and left a guard to watch (the bowl), making all sorts of contributions.

There may be there more than seven hundred monks. When it is near midday, they bring out the bowl, and, along with the common people, make their various offerings to it, after which they take their midday meal. In the evening, at the time of incense, they bring the bowl out again. It may contain rather more than two pecks, and is of various colours, black predominating, with the seams that show its fourfold composition distinctly marked. Its thickness is about the fifth of an inch, and it has a bright and glossy lustre. When poor people throw into it a few flowers, it becomes immediately full, while some very rich people, wishing to make offering of many flowers, might not stop till they had thrown in hundreds, thousands, and myriads of bushels, and yet would not be able to fill it.

Pao-yun and Sang-king here merely made their offerings to the alms-bowl, and (then resolved to) go back. Hwuy-king, Hwuy-'tah, and Tao-ching had gone on before, the rest to Nagara, to make their offerings at (the places of) Buddha's shadow, tooth, and the flat-bone of his skull. (There) Hwuy-king fell ill, and Tao-ching remained to look after him while Hwuy-tah came alone to Purushapura, and saw the others, and (then) he with Pao-yun and Sang-king took their way back to the land of Ts'in. Hwuy-king came to his end in the monastery of Buddha's alms-bowl, and on this Fa-hien went forward alone toward the place of the flat-bone of Buddha's skull.

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## Water Car Engineer

Bamxa said:


> Nice info guys, keep it coming. btw Yuan Empire was massive, controlling the mongol tribes must have been one hell of a job!





Yuans are the Mongols...


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## mil-avia

Comparative history :

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## Bigoren

Im quite shocked when see the GDP of China and Britain are till the same during the weakest stage of China 1900.


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## lcloo

mil-avia said:


> Comparative history :


 
How did the Economist and Angus Maddison get their GDP figures from year AD1 to 1900? I doubt there are reliable historical economic data available for most of the countries listed from AD1 to 1700.

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## Bigoren

lcloo said:


> How did the Economist and Angus Maddison get their GDP figures from year AD1 to 1900? I doubt there are reliable historical economic data available for most of the countries listed from AD1 to 1700.


 
You know,they are just a bunch of "profesional" work to feed their family.So dont get too tight with those data.

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## cross1993

I like the Han Dynasty. Han Dynasty gives us a name --- "Han people."

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## rcrmj

i like most of ancient chinese dynasties, but really dont like the last one``qing, because their customs were so so so ugly!!!!!

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## ChineseTiger1986

rcrmj said:


> i like most of ancient chinese dynasties, but really dont like the last one``qing, because their customs were so so so ugly!!!!!


 
Do you like those idolized/romanticized drama of the Qing Dynasty? Since so many young people like it.

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## TEXAS BATTLESTAR

gpit said:


> Chinese history is also a mixture of glory and shame, brilliance and darkness &#8211; it is nevertheless very unique and distinct in this world.
> 
> To give a systematic view of Chinese history, I believe the following timeline table is useful. Details see Timeline of Chinese history - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Many of you may be interested in correlating dynasties in West or Mideast or Arabic or anywhere with those in China...
> 
> ---- Dynasty	---------------------------	Years
> 
> Three Sovereigns and the Five Emperors	&#19977;&#30343;&#20116;&#24093;	s&#257;n hu&#225;ng w&#468; d&#236; before 2070 BC	628+
> Xia Dynasty	&#22799;	xi&#224; 2070&#8211;1600 BC	470
> Shang Dynasty	&#21830;	sh&#257;ng 1600&#8211;1046 BC	554
> Western Zhou Dynasty	&#35199;&#21608;	x&#299; zh&#333;u	1046&#8211;771 BC	275
> Eastern Zhou Dynasty &#26481;&#21608; / &#19996;&#21608;	d&#333;ng zh&#333;u 770&#8211;256 BC	514
> Traditionally divided into
> Spring and Autumn Period &#26149;&#31179;	ch&#363;n qi&#363; 722&#8211;476 BC 246
> Warring States Period &#25136;&#22283; / &#25112;&#22269; zh&#224;n gu&#243; 475&#8211;221 BC 254
> Qin Dynasty	&#31206;	q&#237;n 221&#8211;206 BC	15
> Western Han Dynasty	&#35199;&#28450; / &#35199;&#27721;	x&#299; h&#224;n 206 BC&#8211;9 AD	215
> Xin Dynasty	&#26032;	x&#299;n 9&#8211;23	14
> Eastern Han Dynasty	&#26481;&#28450; / &#19996;&#27721;	d&#333;ng h&#224;n 25&#8211;220	195
> Three Kingdoms	&#19977;&#22283; / &#19977;&#22269;	s&#257;n gu&#243; 220&#8211;265	45
> Western Jin Dynasty	&#35199;&#26185; / &#35199;&#26187;	x&#299; j&#236;n 265&#8211;317	52
> Eastern Jin Dynasty	&#26481;&#26185; / &#19996;&#26187;	d&#333;ng j&#236;n 317&#8211;420	103
> Southern and Northern Dynasties	&#21335;&#21271;&#26397;	n&#225;n b&#283;i ch&#225;o 420&#8211;589	169
> Sui Dynasty	&#38539;	su&#237; 581&#8211;618	37
> Tang Dynasty	&#21776;	t&#225;ng 618&#8211;907	289
> Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms	&#20116;&#20195;&#21313;&#22283; / &#20116;&#20195;&#21313;&#22269;	w&#468; d&#224;i sh&#237; gu&#243; 907&#8211;960	53
> Northern Song Dynasty	&#21271;&#23435;	b&#283;i s&#242;ng 960&#8211;1127	167
> Southern Song Dynasty	&#21335;&#23435;	n&#225;n s&#242;ng 1127&#8211;1279	152
> Liao Dynasty	&#36988; / &#36797;	li&#225;o 916&#8211;1125	209
> Jin Dynasty	&#37329;	j&#299;n 1115&#8211;1234	119
> Yuan Dynasty	&#20803;	yu&#225;n 1271&#8211;1368	97
> Ming Dynasty	&#26126;	m&#237;ng 1368&#8211;1644	276
> Shun Dynasty	&#38918;	sh&#249;n 1644	<1
> Qing Dynasty	&#28165;	q&#299;ng 1644&#8211;1911	268
> Empire of China	&#20013;&#21326;&#24093;&#22269;	Zh&#333;nghu&#225; D&#236;gu&#243;	(Yuan Shikai)	1915&#8211;1916	<1
> 
> -----------------------
> 
> Following diagram is very rough: even in one dynasty, the torritory was always changing.


 
Excellent post. I like the Yuan dynasty for its massive land size and the Ming dynasty for its naval technology and explorations.

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## rcrmj

ChineseTiger1986 said:


> Do you like those idolized/romanticized drama of the Qing Dynasty? Since so many young people like it.


 
nope, i never liked them``actually i never watched any of those``but i really like &#19977;&#22269;&#65292;&#27700;&#27986;&#21644;&#27721;&#27494;&#24093;

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## faithfulguy

lcloo said:


> How did the Economist and Angus Maddison get their GDP figures from year AD1 to 1900? I doubt there are reliable historical economic data available for most of the countries listed from AD1 to 1700.


 
Its all a speculation. No real facts to back it up.

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## rcrmj

it bothers to me that there is a stereotype that even most chinese dont know that in ancient times Chinese soldier dont use &#21073; jian in battlefield, only general carrying them as for ceremonial purpose and a sign of social status``but in real battle fields after Western Han dynasty they replaced &#65307;&#21073; jian (double edged swords) with &#20992; dao (single edged swords) as it was more powerful and resilient..

here are some examples of the REAL chinese swords during 600-900

Tang dynasty swords













and this is most popular and well known STEREOTYPED Chinese 'traditional' swords by most chinese or hollywood movies

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## no_name

In old times Jian was mainly a status symbol for nobles and aristocrats, and for personal defense by higher class people.


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## ChineseTiger1986

The Japanese katana was derived from the sword style of the Tang Dynasty.

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## milvipes

A straight sword will fly right off your hand if you try to slice a target with it on horseback at full gallop.


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## Aramsogo

lcloo said:


> How did the Economist and Angus Maddison get their GDP figures from year AD1 to 1900? I doubt there are reliable historical economic data available for most of the countries listed from AD1 to 1700.


 
Like most economists, they will first build a closed form model based on population, productivity, technology, multiplier effects, etc... Their historical estimates for these factors will be just that, estimates. 
I think India must have had a larger population than China in 1 AD or they've developed some comparative advantage like the water wheel.

If you've ever played a video game like civilization, that's pretty similar.


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## Aeneas

Liquid said:


> I like the Qin and Han empire the most.
> 
> Ever played *Dynasty warriors*? Always used to play that when I was younger. I like the three kingdoms period in China...



just because the famous novel _Romance of the Three Kingdoms_?hehe,I like three kingdoms period also,and I like the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States era better.

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## rcrmj

milvipes said:


> A straight sword will fly right off your hand if you try to slice a target with it on horseback at full gallop.


 
yes u r right``thats why those horseback nomades were using curved swords,``

this is an example of curved Tang sword





this one is from a japanese museum

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## rcrmj

more Tang Swords




this is standard Tang Sword, can be handled with two hands





look at the sharp edge``!!





this is for generals high ranking officials or ceremonial purpose
same as this one









another standard one

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## rcrmj

now the most powerful Tang infantry weapon called &#38476;&#20992;&#65292;Mo Dao, its a extreemly long two handed saber`
















when not in use soldiers had to disassemble them, these infantries carrying the massive long blade and handle seperately``

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## GodlessBastard

I am currently reading about the period of Chinese history between the collapse of the Late Han and the rise of the Sui (roughly 200-500 C.E.)

It's the period I know the least about, so I find it very interesting. There were so many different dynasties and peoples in China during that time.


Question to Chinese Members: What do Chinese history books teach about the Toba Empire that ruled North China in the 4th century C.E., and the Tibetan ruler Fu-chen, who forged an empire in the same area after the Toba weakened?

I find both polities of great interest, but there is so little information about them.


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## siegecrossbow

GodlessBastard said:


> I am currently reading about the period of Chinese history between the collapse of the Late Han and the rise of the Sui (roughly 200-500 C.E.)
> 
> It's the period I know the least about, so I find it very interesting. There were so many different dynasties and peoples in China during that time.
> 
> 
> Question to Chinese Members: What do Chinese history books teach about the Toba Empire that ruled North China in the 4th century C.E., and the Tibetan ruler Fu-chen, who forged an empire in the same area after the Toba weakened?
> 
> I find both polities of great interest, but there is so little information about them.


 
So you are covering the period between the Three Kingdoms and the establishment of the Sui Dynasty. It is known as the dark ages of China. While there was a great deal of cultural exchanges between China and her neighbors there were also chaos and war. Pretty grim times.


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## oct605032048

it is like europe after the fallen of west roman empire. But there was never a toba empire that took the northland.


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## pzkilo

Toba ruled north China, they did. we call them &#40092;&#21329;(xianbei) or &#25299;&#36299;&#40092;&#21329;(tuoba or toba xianbei). They created wei empire(we call it as beiwei/ North wei?). Finally, Wei was insteaded by Sui empire.
That period is a darkness and chao age. There were no law, freedom and justice etc , but blood, iron and death. 

and the Tibetan ruler Fu-chen, who forged an empire in the same area after the Toba weakened?
I dont know who is this fu-chen. &#33531;&#22362;&#65288;fu jian)?



GodlessBastard said:


> I am currently reading about the period of Chinese history between the collapse of the Late Han and the rise of the Sui (roughly 200-500 C.E.)
> 
> It's the period I know the least about, so I find it very interesting. There were so many different dynasties and peoples in China during that time.
> 
> 
> Question to Chinese Members: What do Chinese history books teach about the Toba Empire that ruled North China in the 4th century C.E., and the Tibetan ruler Fu-chen, who forged an empire in the same area after the Toba weakened?
> 
> I find both polities of great interest, but there is so little information about them.


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## pzkilo

Yes, they did. Toba is &#25299;&#36299;&#40092;&#21329;&#12290;


oct605032048 said:


> it is like europe after the fallen of west roman empire. But there was never a toba empire that took the northland.


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## DesiGuy

nice............!


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## pzkilo

rcrmj said:


> when not in use soldiers had to disassemble them, these infantries carrying the massive long blade and handle seperately``


That is not Mo dao, it s bow....... &#36825;&#20010;&#22270;&#24050;&#32463;&#34987;&#35752;&#35770;&#24456;&#22810;&#27425;&#20102;&#65292; &#37027;&#26159;&#35299;&#25481;&#24339;&#24358;&#30340;&#24339;&#12290; &#38476;&#20992;&#30340;&#23454;&#20307;&#21040;&#29616;&#22312;&#37117;&#27809;&#21457;&#29616;&#65292;&#25152;&#26377;&#26377;&#20851;&#38476;&#20992;&#26679;&#22270;&#26696;&#37117;&#26159;&#24819;&#35937;&#22270;&#12290;


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## pzkilo

Song army


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## pzkilo

jin ?


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## rcrmj

pzkilo said:


> That is not Mo dao, it s bow....... &#36825;&#20010;&#22270;&#24050;&#32463;&#34987;&#35752;&#35770;&#24456;&#22810;&#27425;&#20102;&#65292; &#37027;&#26159;&#35299;&#25481;&#24339;&#24358;&#30340;&#24339;&#12290; &#38476;&#20992;&#30340;&#23454;&#20307;&#21040;&#29616;&#22312;&#37117;&#27809;&#21457;&#29616;&#65292;&#25152;&#26377;&#26377;&#20851;&#38476;&#20992;&#26679;&#22270;&#26696;&#37117;&#26159;&#24819;&#35937;&#22270;&#12290;


 
this is mo dao not bow!! look it arefully, i ll show u another picture, 




look its double edged, &#22914;&#26524;&#21435;&#25481;&#24339;&#24358;&#30340;&#35805;&#24339;&#20307;&#24212;&#35813;&#26159;&#21453;&#36807;&#26469;&#24367;&#26354;&#30340;&#65292;&#22797;&#21512;&#24339;&#37117;&#26159;&#36825;&#26679;&#23376;&#30340;


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## pzkilo

some pics of wep and armor:





























Tibetian's


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## pzkilo

rcrmj said:


> this is mo dao not bow!! look it arefully, i ll show u another picture,


 
&#36825;&#20010;&#38382;&#39064;&#22312;&#26576;&#35770;&#22363;&#21476;&#25112;&#21306;&#35848;&#35770;&#36807;&#26080;&#25968;&#36941;&#20102;&#65292;&#20320;&#36148;&#30340;&#37117;&#36148;&#36807;&#65292;&#20320;&#27809;&#36148;&#30340;&#20063;&#34987;&#36148;&#36807;&#12290; &#19968;&#33324;&#21028;&#26029;&#37027;&#20010;&#19981;&#26159;&#38476;&#20992;&#65292;&#32780;&#26159;&#21435;&#20102;&#24358;&#30340;&#24339;&#12290; &#38476;&#20992;&#29616;&#22312;&#21040;&#24213;&#24590;&#20040;&#26679;&#27809;&#20154;&#33021;&#20934;&#30830;&#30693;&#36947;&#12290;


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## pzkilo

I like this kind of chinese swords---









and I like this pic:


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## sur

*Make this thread "STICKY".......*
& then delete my post


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## S10

My favourite type of troops in ancient armies is the heavy cavalry, comparable to modern tanks of today. Compared to Hellenic World as well as the Middle East, these forces arrived relatively late in China. It was not until the Three Kingdom period that they were seen. The height of these heavily armored troops was during the Song Dynasty period, and declined gradually during the Yuan Dynasty as more mobile light cavalry were deemed more suited for battlefield.

Heavy cavalry of Northern Song Dynasty. Since Song lacked horses, it can be assumed that these are the elite forces of the Imperial Army (&#31105;&#20891, which was destroyed during the Jurchen invasion by the Jin Empire.














Modern depiction, everything right except the helmet is a little off:






Jin Empire &#38081;&#28014;&#23648; (Iron Buddha or Iron Tower), elite forces of various Jurchen tribes. They are normally armored from head to toe. The unit was severely damaged by Yue Fei of Southern Song and later destroyed by Mongols.









Modern depiction, everything right, except they do not carry bows:


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## rcrmj

pzkilo said:


> &#36825;&#20010;&#38382;&#39064;&#22312;&#26576;&#35770;&#22363;&#21476;&#25112;&#21306;&#35848;&#35770;&#36807;&#26080;&#25968;&#36941;&#20102;&#65292;&#20320;&#36148;&#30340;&#37117;&#36148;&#36807;&#65292;&#20320;&#27809;&#36148;&#30340;&#20063;&#34987;&#36148;&#36807;&#12290; &#19968;&#33324;&#21028;&#26029;&#37027;&#20010;&#19981;&#26159;&#38476;&#20992;&#65292;&#32780;&#26159;&#21435;&#20102;&#24358;&#30340;&#24339;&#12290; &#38476;&#20992;&#29616;&#22312;&#21040;&#24213;&#24590;&#20040;&#26679;&#27809;&#20154;&#33021;&#20934;&#30830;&#30693;&#36947;&#12290;


 
&#20320;&#24590;&#20040;&#33021;&#30606;&#20105;&#21602;&#65281;&#65311;&#25105;&#20063;&#30475;&#36807;&#35768;&#22810;&#20851;&#20110;&#38476;&#20992;&#30340;&#35770;&#22363;&#65292;&#22823;&#22810;&#25968;&#20154;&#37117;&#21516;&#24847;&#22270;&#20013;&#30340;&#23601;&#26159;&#38476;&#20992;&#65281;&#37027;&#25105;&#21453;&#38382;&#20320;&#19968;&#19979;`&#20013;&#22269;&#21476;&#20195; &#20351;&#29992;&#30340;&#26159;&#22797;&#21512;&#24339;&#65292;&#21435;&#25481;&#24339;&#29572;&#20043;&#21518;&#24339;&#20307;&#20250;&#25104;&#21453;&#24359;&#24418;&#65292;&#23601;&#35937;&#25105;&#29031;&#29255;&#37324;&#30340;&#37027;&#26679;```&#37027;&#20026;&#20160;&#20040;&#25152;&#26377;&#30011;&#37324;&#22763;&#20853;&#33136;&#38388;&#25658;&#24102;&#30340;&#37117; &#26159;&#30452;&#30340;&#21602;&#65311; &#20877;&#35828;&#20102;&#22914;&#26524;&#26159;&#24339;&#20307;&#30340;&#35805;&#37027;&#20040;&#24590;&#20040;&#35265;&#19981;&#21040;&#24339;&#35282;&#65311;














&#30475;&#30475;&#36825;&#20010;&#35270;&#39057;&#65292;&#20102;&#35299;&#19968;&#19979;&#20160;&#20040;&#26159;&#22797;&#21512;&#24339;&#65292;&#21435;&#20102;&#29572;&#20043;&#21518;&#24339;&#20307;&#26159;&#21861;&#20040;&#26679;&#65281;


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## no_name

rcrmj said:


> more Tang Swords
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> another standard one


 
That I think was a picture of miao dao, which was developed in ming dynasty to fight japanese pirates because straight swords breaks too easily when encountering katanas. Sword making suffered a decline following the fall of song dynasty.


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## no_name

rcrmj said:


>


 
Flat, angled point was developed because they act like can openers when encountering plate armour, where as a rounded point is more likely to glance off.

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## no_name

Leshan Buddha built during Tang Dynasty.


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## sino_pak

china History ( all contents below are formally issued on english website of china's center goverment)

China is a country with a very early civilization and a long and rich history. The compass, gunpowder, the art of paper-making and block printing invented by the ancient Chinese have contributed immensely to the progress of mankind. The Great Wall, Grand Canal and other projects built by the Chinese people are regarded as engineering feats in the world.

Man has lived for a very long time in what is now China, according to archaeological finds. In many parts of the country, for instance, fossil remains of primitive ape men have been unearthed. Among them are the fossil remains of the Yuanmou Ape Man who lived in Yunnan Province some 1.7 million years ago.

Research findings show that the Peking Man, who lived about 500,000 years ago, was able to make and use simple implements and knew the use of fire.

Like all other peoples on earth, the Chinese have passed through the primitive, matriarchal and patriarchal communes and the slave and feudal systems.

People in China take pride in calling themselves the offspring of Huang Di or Yellow Emperor, a tribal chief who dwelled in the Yellow River Valley more than four millenniums ago. Prehistorical legends about the Yellow Emperor and other outstanding personages of his time abound in ancient Chinese books. Legend has it that the Yellow Emperor made weapons out of jade to conquer other tribes, while his wife, Lei Zu, introduced the rearing of silkworms. The Yellow Emperor taught tribemen to domesticate wild animals and to grow cereals, and as a result his tribes grew in strength and defeated the tribes under Yan Di(Emperor Yan). Later, the Yellow Emperor and Emperor Yan formed an alliance that conquered all the other tribes in the Yellow River Valley. Today the Yellow Emperor is regarded as the ancestor of the Chinese people, who call themselves the descendants of Yan Di and Huang Di(Emperor Yan and Yellow Emperor).

Society in those bygone times, as reflected in the legends, was based on the primitive communion which private property and the exploitation of man by man was unknown.

After the death of the Yellow Emperor, the primitive tribes in the Yellow River Valley were ruled in succession by such legendary figures as Yao, Shun and Da Yu(Great Yu) who subdued floods and harnessed Rivers.

The Xia Dynasty (21st century BC-16th century BC), the first dynasty that emerged in China 4,100 years ago, was founded by Qi, son of Great Yu who conquered floods and tamed rivers. The Xia dynasty, which was a slave-owning society, was overthrown by warriors commanded by Shang Tang, the founder of the Shang Dynasty(16th century BC-11th century BC)during which the slave-owning system developed with the growth of farm and handicraft production. The art of smelting and casting bronze reached a higher level of development in this period during which recorded history commenced in China. As paper was then unknown, some of the writings in Shang time were cast in bronze, and some inscribed on tortoise shells or animal bones.

The Shang Dynasty was superseded by the Western Zhou Dynasty(11th century BC-771BC)during which the slave-owning system grew more prosperous. The Western Zhou rulers instituted an enfeoffment system under which nobles were invested with hereditary titles as well as land along with the slaves working on it. Introduced then was the "9-square pattern" of farming in which a tract of land was partitioned into nine squares. The eight outer squares were allocated to slaves who had to work the central square gratis for their masters.

The Spring and Autumn Period (770BC-476BC) witnessed the advent of the ox as a draught animal and the use of iron implements on the farm. This boosted farm output and made it possible for the opening up of more land for crop cultivation. As a result, more farmland came under private ownership and the disintegration of the slave system commenced to give way for a feudal society.

The up-and-coming land-owning or landlord class introduced reforms to change the land ownership system to its own advantage at the beginning of the Warring States Period(475BC-221BC). There were then seven vassal states contending with one another for hegemony. In the struggle for supremacy, the state of Qin based in Shaanxi Province, which had become powerful because of the fact that it had adopted drastic measures to reform the land ownership system, conquered all the other states to establish the Qin Dynasty (221BC-206BC), the first centralized, autocratic feudal empire in China. This was a signal victory for the new landlord class.

Emperor Qin Shi Huang of the Qin Dynasty carried out a lot of reform measures, including standardization of weights and measures and the initiation of a single currency and a unitary script, etc. While building a network of roads across the land, he conscripted 300,000 laborers to build the Great Wall and dispatched 500,000 warriors to garrison Lingnan(present-day Guangdong Province)and 700,000 men to erect his mausoleum. The Qin Shi Huang Mausoleum along with a big army of life-sized terra cotta warriors and battle steeds, which have been unearthed in the city of Xi'an, are a big attraction for tourists from all over the world.

Pauperized by such extravagances, the peasant masses rose up in arms and overthrew the Qin rulers to set up the Western Han Dynasty (202BC-AD8).

During this dynastic period agriculture and handicraft made marked progress along with the flourishing of science, culture and the arts. Links between the different ethnic groups in the country were strengthened and exchanges with the outside world broadened. Zhang Qian, a diplomat of that time, who was dispatched as envoy to the Western Regions, opened the world-famous Silk Road.

As the Western Han Dynasty was later weakened by corruption, Liu Xiu, taking advantage of the strength of peasant uprisers, replaced the Western Han Dynasty with the Eastern Han Dynasty founded in AD25. From this time onward economy, science and culture continued to progress. However, contradictions within the ruling class flared up later and the uprisings of the Yellow Turbans led by Zhang Jiao hastened the disintegration of the Eastern Han Dynasty. There followed tangled warfare among various separatist regimes until three rival kingdoms Wei, Shu Han and Wu, came to the fore.

In AD265 Sima Yan, an influential official of the Kingdom of Wei, dethroned its ruler and established the Western Jin Dynasty. He annexed the Kingdom of Wu in 280. So, with the Kingdom of Shu Han toppled by the Kingdom of Wei earlier in 263, the Three Kingdoms came to an end. Soon afterwards, nevertheless, tangled warfare broke out among various ethnic groups, resulting in the emergence of 16 small kingdoms in northern China and the downfall of the Western Jin Dynasty. In 317, the year that the Western Jin Dynasty was brought down, Sima Rui, a member of the royal house, set up the Eastern Jin Dynasty in the south.

In 386 there came into existence two antagonistic regimes-the Southern Dynasty in the south and the Northern Dynasty in the north. At last, in 581, the country was unified under the Sui Dynasty. The nation's economy, however, was later ruined by Emperor Yang Di's extravagance and corruption as well as by his gigantic construction projects and excessive military spending. This brought about peasant uprisings which swept the whole country. Taking advantage of this situation, Li Yuan, a military commander of the dynasty, led his forces to take the capital Chang'an. He became the founder of the Tang Dynasty (618-907).

The Tang Dynasty witnessed a period of economic and cultural boom in China. At that time China was powerful and ranked among the most advanced countries in the world. Its foreign relations were broader than ever before. It forged friendly ties with Japan, Korea and many countries in West Asia, Europe and Africa, with its capital Chang'an serving as center of cultural exchange between various countries.

Economically, agriculture and handicraft in Tang times reached a very high level of technology. Literary and artistic creations flourished. It was in the Tang period that most of the frescos in the Dunhuang Grottos, a world-renowned treasure house of art, were done. A host of noted scientists and men of letters came to the fore, such as the high monk Yi Xing(alias Zhang Sui), an astronomer, and Li Bai and Du Fu, poets. Also accredited to the Tang Dynasty are the inventions of gunpowder, block printing and the astronomical clock, which have substantially contributed to the development of world culture.

The rebellion of An Lushan and Shi Siming, generals of the Tang court, marked the beginning of the decline of the Tang Dynasty, which came to an end in 907. In the years that followed, constant strifes plagued the country. In a space of 50 years five dynasties(Later Liang, Later Tang, Later Jin, Later Han and Later Zhou)rose and fell in the Yellow River Basin. At the same time 10 kingdoms including Qian Shu, Wu, Min, Wuyue and Chu ruled different areas in the south. This period has come to be known as the period of Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms.

National unification was achieved again in 960 when Zhao Kuangyin, a general of the Later Zhou Dynasty, founded the Song Dynasty with the capital in Kaifeng, modern Henan Province. This dynasty is known in history as the Northern Song Dynasty.

In Northern Song time some border tribes grew very strong. They were the Khitan of the Kingdom of Liao and the Nuzhen of the Kingdom of Jin in Northeast China, and the Dang Xiang of the Kingdom of Western Xia. They fought among themselves and against the Song government. After conquering the Khitan, the Nuzhen swept south and overthrew the Northern Song Dynasty. In 1127 Zhao Gou, brother of the last emperor of the Northern Song Dynasty, established a new government in Nanjing (now Shangqiu, Henan Province), which is historically known as the Southern Song Dynasty.

During the Song period agriculture and commerce flourished and science and technology made impressive strides. New cities sprang up. Overseas trade began to develop. A host of thinkers, scholars and men of letters came to the fore. There was a boom in calligraphy, painting, sculpture and weaving art. Achievements in porcelain manufacture outshone all previous records. Gunpowder was widely used for military purposes. Especially noteworthy are the inventions of the compass and movable type printing which have greatly contributed to human progress.

While the Song and Nuzhen armies were locked in continuous warfare, the Mongols in the north rose to power under Genghis Khan who unified all the Mongol tribes. He subjugated the Western Xia, Liao and Jin kingdoms one after another. His grandson, Kublai Khan, set up the Yuan Dynasty(1271-1368) and in 1276 overthrew the Southern Song Dynasty, thus unifying China once more.

The renewed national unification served to boost the economy, promote science and culture, improve the ties between various nationalities and increase contacts with foreign lands. During the nine decades of Yuan rule, however, there were no end to peasant insurrections.

In 1368 Zhu Yuanzhang, a peasant leader, established the Ming Dynasty and in the same year drove the Mongol emperor away from his capital (now Beijing), thereby restoring Han nationality rule in China.

During the Ming Dynasty the growth of agriculture and handicraft production brought an expansion to the commodity economy. From the middle of Ming times onward, capitalism began to burgeon in some handicraft industries in certain coastal regions. Meanwhile, overseas contacts increased. A notable example is provided by Zheng He, a noted navigator, who was sent overseas as envoy at the head of a large fleet on seven voyages, the longest of which took him to the equator on the eastern African coast.

The Ming Dynasty was overthrown in 1644 by the peasant armies under the command of Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong. In the same year Manchu armed forces pushed south of the Great Wall through Shanhaiguan Pass. They defeated the peasant armies, followed by the establishment of the Qing Dynasty(1644-1911).

The Qing Dynasty reached the zenith of its power during the reigns of emperors Kang Xi, Yong Zheng and Qian Long. Its territory was extensive and production boomed. However, the isolationist policy carried out in the later years of the Qing government retarded the burgeoning of capitalism in China and kept the country ignorant of the political, economic, military and cultural developments in the West.

In 1840 the British imperialists launched the Opium War against China. In its wake came invaders from various countries. The foreign powers forced the corrupt and incompetent Qing government to sign a series of unequal treaties. Consequently, China was gradually turned into a semi-feudal and semi-colonial country.

The revolution led by Dr. Sun Yat-sen overthrew the Qing Dynasty in 1911 and led to the founding of the Republic of China, thus putting an end to the more than 2,000 years of feudal, monarchic rule in China. Regretably, the fruits of the 1911 Revolution were usurped by the warlord Yuan Shikai with the backing of imperialism.

In 1919 the May 4th Movement broke out to spearhead against imperialism and feudalism.

The Communist Party of China was founded in 1921.

In 1924 the Kuomintang founded by Dr.Sun Yat-sen entered into cooperation with the Chinese Communist Party to launch from Guangdong Province in 1926 the Northern Expedition to overthrow imperialist-backed warlordism. In the following year, Chiang Kai-shek, Wang Jingwei and other Kuomintang right-wingers betrayed the revolution one after another. They set up in Nanjing a new regime that still went under the name of the "Republic of China" .

Under Chiang Kai-shek's rule, there emerged in China national monopoly capitalism of a comprador and feudal nature. The fascist rule he instituted plunged the Chinese people into misery.

After 1931, Japan stepped up its aggression against China. This triggered off the Anti-Japanese War six years later. For the second time the Communist Party and the Kuomintang Party entered into cooperation--this time to fight the Japanese invaders. The war dragged on for eight years until Japan surrendered in August 1945.

In 1946, Chiang Kai-shek launched an all-out attack against the resistance forces led by the Chinese Communist Party. Chiang was defeated, and the Kuomintang regime was toppled in 1949. Chiang fled to Taiwan Island with his remnant troops. On Oct. 1, 1949 the People's Republic of China was proclaimed with Mao Zedong as chairman.

From the inception of the People's Republic of China in October 1949 to 1956, the new democracy to socialism, rapidly rehabilitating the country's economy, undertaking planned economic construction and in the main accomplishing the socialist transformation of the private ownership of the means of production in most of the country. The guidelines and basic policies defined by the Party in this historical period were correct and led to brilliant successes.

In the first three years of the People's Republic, we cleared the mainland of bandits and the remnant armed forces of the Kuomintang reactionaries, peacefully liberated Tibet, established people's governments at all levels throughout the country, confiscated bureaucrat-capitalist enterprises and transformed them into state-owned socialist enterprises, unified the country's financial and economic work, stabilized commodity prices, carried out agrarian reform in the new liberated areas, suppressed counter-revolutionaries and unfolded the movements against the "three evils" of corruption, waste and bureaucracy and against the "five evils" of bribery, tax evasion, theft of state property, cheating on government contracts and stealing of economic information, the latter being a movement to beat back the attack mounted by the bourgeoisie. We effectively transformed the educational, scientific and cultural institutions of old China. While successfully carrying out the complex and difficult task of social reform and simultaneously undertaking the great war to resist US aggression and aid Korea, protect our homes and defend the country, we rapidly rehabilitated the country's economy which had been devastated in old China. By the end of 1952, the country's industrial and agricultural production had attained record levels.

On the proposal of Comrade Mao Zedong in 1952, the Central Committee of the Party advanced the general line for the transition period, which was to realize the country's socialist industrialization and socialist transformation of agriculture, handicrafts and capitalist industry and commerce step by step over a fairly long period of time. This general line was a reflection of historical necessity.

1)Socialist industrialization is an indispensable prerequisite to the country's independence and prosperity.

2)With nationwide victory in the new-democratic revolution and completion of the agrarian reform, the contradiction between the working class and the bourgeoisie and between the socialist road and the capitalist road became the principal internal contradiction. The country needed a certain expansion of capitalist industry and commerce which were beneficial to its economy and to the people's livelihood. But in the course of their expansion, things detrimental to the national economy and the people's livelihood were bound to emerge. Consequently, a struggle between restriction and opposition to restriction was inevitable. The conflict of interests became increasingly apparent between capitalist enterprises on the one hand and the economic policies of the state, the socialist state-owned economy, the workers and staff in these capitalist enterprises and the people as a whole on the other. An integrated series of necessary measures and steps, such as the fight against speculation and profiteering, the readjustment and restructuring of industry and commerce, the movement against the "five evils, " workers' supervision of production and state monopoly of the purchase and marketing of grain and cotton, were bound to gradually bring backward, anarchic, lop-sided and profit-oriented capitalist industry and commerce into the orbit of socialist transformation.

3)Among the individual peasants, and particularly the poor and lower-middle peasants who had just acquired land in the agrarian reform but lacked other means of production, there was a genuine desire for mutual aid and co-operation in order to avoid borrowing at usurious rates and even mortgaging or selling their land again with consequent polarization, and in order to expand production, undertake water conservancy projects, ward off natural calamities and make use of farm machinery and new techniques. The progress of industrialization, while demanding agricultural products in ever increasing quantities, would provide stronger and stronger support for the technical transformation of agriculture, and this also constituted a motive force behind the transformation of individual into co-operative farming.

As is borne out by history, the general line for the transition period set forth by the Party was entirely correct.

During the period of transition, the Party creatively charted a course for socialist transformation that suited China's specific conditions. In dealing with capitalist industry and commerce, it devised a whole series of transitional forms of state capitalism from lower to higher levels, such as the placing of state orders with private enterprises for the processing of materials or the manufacture of goods, state monopoly of the purchase and marketing of the products of private enterprise, the marketing of products of state-owned enterprises by private shops, and joint state-private ownership of individual enterprises or enterprises of a whole trade, and it eventually realized the peaceful redemption of the bourgeoisie, a possibility envisaged by Marx and Lenin. In dealing with individual farming, it devised transitional forms of co-operation, proceeding from temporary or all-the-year-round mutual-aid teams, to elementary agricultural producers'co-operatives of a semi-socialist nature and then to advanced agricultural producers' co-operatives of a fully socialist nature, always adhering to the principles of voluntariness and mutual benefit, demonstration through advanced examples, and extension of state help. Similar methods were used in transforming individual handicraft industries. In the course of such transformation, the state-capitalist and cooperative economies displayed their unmistakable superiority. By 1956, the socialist transformation of the private ownership of the means of production had been largely completed in most regions. But there had been shortcomings and errors. From the summer of 1955 onwards, the Party was overhasty in pressing on with agricultural co-operation and the transformation of private handicraft and commercial establishments; it was far from meticulous, the changes were too fast, and it did its work in a somewhat summary, stereotyped manner, leaving open a number of questions for a long time. Following the basic completion of the transformation of capitalist industry and commerce in 1956, we failed to do a proper job in employing and handling some of the former industrialists and businessmen. But on the whole, it was definitely a historic victory for the Party has effected, and to have effected fairly smoothly, so difficult, complex and profound a social change in so vast a country with its several hundred million people, a change, moreover, which promoted the growth of industry, agriculture and the economy as a whole.

In economic construction under the First Five-Year Plan (1953-1957), China likewise scored major successes through her own efforts and with the assistance of the Soviet Union and other friendly countries. A number of basic industries, essential for the country's industrialization and yet very weak in the past, were built up. Between 1953 and 1956, the average annual increases in the total value of industrial and agricultural output were 19. 6 and 4. 8 per cent respectively. Economic growth was quite fast, with satisfactory economic results, and the key economic sectors were well-balanced. The market prospered, prices were stable. The people's livelihood improved perceptibly.

The First National People's Congress was convened in September 1954, and it enacted the Constitution of the People's Republic of China. In March 1955, a national conference of the Party reviewed the major struggle against the plots of the careerists Gao Gang and Rao Shushi to split the Party and usurp supreme power in the Party and the state; in this way it strengthened Party unity. In January 1956, the Central Committee of the Party called a conference on the question of the intellectuals. Subsequently, the policy of "letting a hundred flowers blossom and a hundred schools of thought contend" was advanced. These measures spelled out the correct policy regarding intellectuals and the work in education, science and culture and thus brought about a significant advance in these fields. Owing to the Party's correct policies, fine style of work and the consequent high prestige it enjoyed among the people, the vast numbers of cadres, masses, youth and intellectuals earnestly studied Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought and participated enthusiastically in revolutionary and construction activities under the leadership of the Party, so that a healthy and virile revolutionary morality prevailed throughout the country.

The Eighth National Congress of the Party held in September 1956 was very successful. The congress declared that the socialist system had been basically established in China; that while the country must strive to liberate Taiwan, thoroughly complete socialist transformation, ultimately eliminate the system of exploitation and continue to wipe out the remnant forces of counter-revolution, the principal contradiction within the country was no longer the contradiction between the working class and the bourgeoisie but between the demand of the people for rapid economic and cultural development and the existing state of our economy and culture which fell short of the needs of the people; that the chief task confronting the whole nation was to concentrate all efforts on developing the productive forces, industrializing the country and gradually meeting the people's incessantly growing material and cultural needs; and that although class struggle still existed and the people's democratic dictatorship had to be further strengthened, the basic task of the dictatorship was now to protect and develop the productive forces in the context of the new relations of production. The congress adhered to the principle put forward by the Central Committee of the Party in May 1956, the principle of opposing both conservatism and rash advance in economic construction, that is, of making steady progress by striking an overall balance. It emphasized the problem of the building of the Party in office and the need to uphold democratic centralism and collective leadership, oppose the personality cult, promote democracy within the Party and among the people and strengthen the Party's ties with the masses. The line laid down by the Eighth National Congress of the Party was correct and it charted the path for the development of the cause of socialism and for Party building in the new period.

After the basic completion of socialist transformation, the Party led the entire people in shifting China's work to all-round, large-scale socialist construction. In the 10 years preceding the "cultural revolution" China achieved very big successes despite serious setbacks. By 1966, the value of fixed industrial assets, calculated on the basis of their original price, was 4 times greater than in 1956. The output of such major industrial products as cotton yarn, coal, electricity, crude oil, steel and mechanical equipment all recorded impressive increases. Beginning in 1965, China became self-sufficient in petroleum. New industries such as the electronic and petrochemical industries were established one after another. The distribution of industry over the country became better balanced. Capital construction in agriculture and its technical transformation began on a massive scale and yielded better and better results. Both the number of tractors for farming and the quantity of chemical fertilizers applied increased over 7 times and rural consumption of electricity 71 times. The number of graduates from institutions of higher education was 4.9 times that of the previous seven years. Educational work was improved markedly through consolidation. Scientific research and technological work, too, produced notable results.

In the 10 years from 1956 to 1966, the Party accumulated precious experience in leading socialist construction. In the spring of 1957, Comrade Mao Zedong stressed the necessity of correctly handling and distinguishing between the two types of social contradictions differing in nature in a socialist society, and made the correct handling of contradictions among the people the main content of the country's political life. Later, he called for the creation of "a political situation in which the Party members have both centralism and democracy, both discipline and freedom, both unity of will and personal ease of mind and liveliness. " In 1958, he proposed that the focus of Party and government work be shifted to technical revolution and socialist construction. All this was the continuation and development of the line adopted by the Eighth National Congress of the Party and was to go on serving as a valuable guide. While leading the work of correcting the errors in the great leap forward and the movement to organize people's communes, Comrade Mao Zedong pointed out that there must be no expropriation of the peasants; that a given stage of social development should not be skipped; that egalitarianism must be opposed; that the country must stress commodity production, observe the law of value and strike an overall balance in economic planning; and that economic plans must be arranged with the priority proceeding from agriculture to light industry and then to heavy industry. Comrade Liu Shaoqi said that a variety of means of production could be put into circulation as commodities and that there should be a double-track system for labour as well as for education* in socialist society. Comrade Zhou Enlai said, among other things, that the overwhelming majority of Chinese intellectuals had become intellectuals belonging to the working people and that science and technology would play a key role in China's modernization. Comrade Chen Yun held that plan targets should be realistic, that the scale of construction should correspond to national capability, considerations should be given to both the people's livelihood and the needs of state construction, and that the material, financial and credit balances should be maintained in drawing up plans. Comrade Deng Xiaoping held that industrial enterprises should be consolidated and their management improved and strengthened, and that the system of workers' conferences should be introduced. Comrade Zhu De stressed the need to pay attention to the development of handicrafts and of diverse undertakings in agriculture. Deng Zihui and other comrades pointed out that a system of production responsibility should be introduced in agriculture. All these views were not only of vital significance then, but have remained so ever since. In the course of economic readjustment, the Central Committee drew up draft rules governing the work of the rural people's communes and work in industry, commerce, education, science and literature and art. These rules which were a more or less systematic summation of the experience in socialist construction and embodied specific policies suited to the prevailing conditions remain important as a source of reference to this very day.

In short, the material and technical basis for modernizing China was largely established during that period. It was also largely in the same period that the core personnel for the work in the economic, cultural and other spheres were trained and that they gained their experience. This was the principal aspect of the Party's work in that period.

In the course of this decade, there were serious faults and errors in the guidelines of the Party's work, which developed through twists and turns.

1957 was one of the years that saw the best results in economic work since the founding of the People's Republic owing to the conscientious implementation of the correct line formulated at the Eighth National Congress of the Party. To start a rectification campaign throughout the Party in that year and urge the masses to offer criticisms and suggestions were normal steps in developing socialist democracy. In the rectification campaign a handful of bourgeois Rightists seized the opportunity to advocate what they called "speaking out and airing views in a big way" and to mount a wild attack against the Party and the nascent socialist system in an attempt to replace the leadership of the Communist Party. It was therefore entirely correct and necessary to launch a resolute counterattack. But the scope of this struggle was made far too broad and a number of intellectuals, patriotic people and Party cadres were unjustifiably labelled "Rightists, " with unfortunate consequences.

In 1958, the Second Plenum of the Eighth National Congress of the Party adopted the general line for socialist construction. The line and its fundamental aspects were correct in that it reflected the masses' pressing demand for a change in the economic and cultural backwardness of our country. Its shortcoming was that it overlooked the objective economic laws. Both before and after the plenum, all comrades in the Party and people of all nationalities displayed high enthusiasm and initiative for socialism and achieved certain results in production and construction. However, "Left" errors, characterized by excessive targets, the issuing of arbitrary directions, boastfulness and the stirring up of a "communist wind, " spread unchecked throughout the country. This was due to our lack of experience in socialist construction and inadequate understanding of the laws of economic development and of the basic economic conditions in China. More important, it was due to the fact that Comrade Mao Zedong and many leading comrades, both at the centre and in the localities, had become smug about their successes, were impatient for quick results and overestimated the role of man's subjective will and efforts. After the general line was formulated, the great leap forward and the movement for rural people's communes were initiated without careful investigation and study and without prior experimentation. From the end of 1958 to the early stage of the Lushan Meeting of the Political Bureau of the Party's Central Committee in July 1959, Comrade Mao Zedong and the Central Committee led the whole Party in energetically rectifying the errors which had already been recognized. However, in the later part of the meeting, he erred in initiating criticism of Comrade Peng Dehuai and then in launching a Party-wide struggle against "Right opportunism. " The resolution passed by the Eighth Plenary Session of the Eighth Central Committee of the Party concerning the so-called anti-Party group of Peng Dehuai, Huang Kecheng, Zhang Wentian and Zhou Xiaozhou was entirely wrong. Politically, this struggle gravely undermined inner-Party democracy from the central level down to the grassroots; economically, it cut short the process of the rectification of "Left" errors, thus prolonging their influence. It was mainly due to the errors of the great leap forward and of the struggle against "Right opportunism" together with a succession of natural calamities and the perfidious scrapping of contracts by the Soviet Government that our economy encountered serious difficulties between 1959 and 1961, which caused serious losses to our country and people.

In the winter of 1960, the Central Committee of the Party and Comrade Mao Zedong set about rectifying the "Left" errors in rural work and decided on the principle of "readjustment, consolidation, filling out and raising standards" for the economy as a whole. A number of correct policies and resolute measures were worked out and put into effect with Comrades Liu Shaoqi, Zhou Enlai, Chen Yun and Deng Xiaoping in charge. All this constituted a crucial turning point in that historical phase. In January 1962, the enlarged Central Work Conference attended by 7,000 people made a preliminary summing-up of the positive and negative experience of the great leap forward and unfolded criticism and self-criticism. A majority of the comrades who had been unjustifiably criticized during the campaign against "Right opportunism" were rehabilitated before or after the conference. In addition. most of the "Rightists" had their label removed. Thanks to these economic and political measures, the national economy recovered and developed fairly smoothly between 1962 and 1966.

Nevertheless, "Left" errors in the principles guiding economic work were not only not eradicated, but actually grew in the spheres of politics, ideology and culture. At the 10th Plenary Session of the Party's Eighth Central Committee in September 1962, Comrade Mao Zedong widened and absolutized the class struggle, which exists only within certain limits in socialist society, and carried forward the viewpoint he had advanced after the anti-Rightist struggle in 1957 that the contradiction between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie remained the principal contradiction in the society. He went a step further and asserted that, throughout the historical period of socialism, the bourgeoisie would continue to exist and would attempt a come back and become the source of revisionism inside the Party. The socialist education movement unfolded between 1963 and 1965 in some rural areas and at the grass-roots level in a small number of cities did help to some extent to improve the cadres' style of work and economic management. But, in the course of the movement, problems differing in nature were all treated as forms of class struggle or its reflections inside the Party. As a result, quite a number of the cadres at the grass-roots level were unjustly dealt with in the latter half of 1964, and early in 1965 the erroneous thesis was advanced that the main target of the movement should be "those Party persons in power taking the capitalist road. " In the ideological sphere, a number of literary and art works and schools of thought and a number of representative personages in artistic, literary and academic circles were subjected to unwarranted, inordinate political criticism. And there was an increasingly serious "Left" deviation on the question of intellectuals and on the question of education, science and culture. These errors eventually culminated in the "cultural revolution, " but they had not yet become dominant.

Thanks to the fact that the whole Party and people had concentrated on carrying out the correct principle of economic readjustment since the winter of 1960, socialist construction gradually flourished again. The Party and the people were united in sharing weal and woe. They overcame difficulties at home, stood up to the pressure of the Soviet leading clique and repaid all the debts owed to the Soviet Union, which were chiefly incurred through purchasing Soviet arms during the movement to resist U. S. aggression and aid Korea. In addition, they did what they could to support the revolutionary struggles of the people of many countries and assist them in their economic construction. The Third National People's Congress, which met between the end of 1964 and the first days of 1965, announced that the task of national economic readjustment had in the main been accomplished and that the economy as a whole would soon enter a new stage of development. It called for energetic efforts to build China step by step into a socialist power with modern agriculture, industry, national defence and science and technology. This call was not fulfilled owing to the "cultural revolution. "

All the successes in these 10 years were achieved under the collective leadership of the Central Committee of the Party headed by Comrade Mao Zedong. Likewise, responsibility for the errors committed in the work of this period rested with the same collective leadership. Although Comrade Mao Zedong must be held chiefly responsible, the blame cannot be laid on him alone for all those errors. During this period, his theoretical and practical mistakes concerning class struggle in a socialist society became increasingly serious, his personal arbitrariness gradually undermined democratic centralism in Party life and the personality cult grew graver and graver. The Central Committee of the Party failed to rectify these mistakes in good time. Careerists like Lin Biao, Jiang Qing and Kang Sheng, harbouring ulterior motives, made use of these errors and inflated them. This led to the inauguration of the "cultural revolution. "

The "cultural revolution, " which lasted from May 1966 to October 1976, was responsible for the most severe setback and the heaviest losses suffered by the Party, the state and the people since the founding of the People's Republic. It was initiated and led by Comrade Mao Zedong. His principal theses were that many representatives of the bourgeoisie and counter-revolutionary revisionists had sneaked into the Party, the government, the army and cultural circles, and leadership in a fairly large majority of organizations and departments was no longer in the hands of Marxists and the people; that Party persons in power taking the capitalist road had formed a bourgeois headquarters inside the Central Committee which pursued a revisionist political and organizational line and had agents in all provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions, as well as in all central departments; that since the forms of struggle adopted in the past had not been able to solve this problem, the power usurped by the capitalist-roaders could be recaptured only by carrying out a great cultural revolution, by openly and fully mobilizing the broad masses from the bottom up to expose these sinister phenomena; and that the cultural revolution was in fact a great political revolution in which one class would overthrow another, a revolution that would have to be waged time and again. These theses appeared mainly in the May 16 Circular, which served as the programmatic document of the "cultural revolution, " and in the political report to the Ninth National Congress of the Party in April 1969. They were incorporated into a general theory-the "theory of continued revolution under the dictatorship of the proletariat" -which then took on a specific meaning. These erroneous "Left" theses, upon which Comrade Mao Zedong based himself in initiating the "cultural revolution, " were obviously inconsistent with the system of Mao Zedong Thought, which is the integration of the universal principles of Marxism-Leninism with the concrete practice of the Chinese revolution. These theses must be thoroughly distinguished from Mao Zedong Thought. As for Lin Biao, Jiang Qing and others, who were placed in important positions by Comrade Mao Zedong, the matter is of an entirely different nature. They rigged up two counter-revolutionary cliques in an attempt to seize supreme power and, taking advantage of Comrade Mao Zedong's errors, committed many crimes behind his back, bringing disaster to the country and the people. As their counter-revolutionary crimes have been fully exposed, this resolution will not go into them at any length.

The history of the "cultural revolution" has proved that Comrade Mao Zedong's principal theses for initiating this revolution conformed neither to Marxism-Leninism nor to Chinese reality. They represent an entirely erroneous appraisal of the prevailing class relations and political situation in the Party and state.

1)The "cultural revolution" was defined as a struggle against the revisionist line or the capitalist road. There were no grounds at all for this definition. It led to the confusing of right and wrong on a series of important theories and policies. Many things denounced as revisionist or capitalist during the "cultural revolution" were actually Marxist and socialist principles, many of which had been set forth or supported by Comrade Mao Zedong himself. The "cultural revolution" negated many of the correct principles, policies and achievements of the 17 years after the founding of the People's Republic. In fact, it negated much of the work of the Central Committee of the Party and the People's Government, including that of Comrade Mao and the arduous struggles the entire people had conducted in socialist construction.

2)The confusing of right and wrong inevitably led to confusing the people with the enemy. The "capitalist-roaders" overthrown in the "cultural revolution" were leading cadres of Party and government organizations at all levels, who formed the core force of the socialist cause. The so-called bourgeois headquarters inside the Party headed by Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping simply did not exist. Irrefutable facts have proved that labelling Comrade Liu Shaoqi a "renegade, hidden traitor and scab" was nothing but a frame-up by Lin Biao, Jiang Qing and their followers. The political conclusion concerning Comrade Liu Shaoqi drawn by the 12th Plenary Session of the Eighth Central Committee of the Party and the disciplinary measure it meted out to him were both utterly wrong. The criticism of the so-called reactionary academic authorities in the "cultural revolution" during which many capable and accomplished intellectuals were attacked and persecuted also badly muddled up the distinction between the people and the enemy.

3)Nominally, the "cultural revolution" was conducted by directly relying on the masses. In fact, it was divorced both from the Party organizations and from the masses. After the movement started, Party organizations at different levels were attacked and became partially or wholly paralysed, the Party's leading cadres at various levels were subjected to criticism and struggle, inner-Party life came to a standstill, and many activists and large numbers of the basic masses whom the Party has long relied on were rejected. At the beginning of the "cultural revolution, " the vast majority of participants in the movement acted out of their faith in Comrade Mao Zedong and the Party. Except for a handful of extremists, however, they did not approve of launching ruthless struggles against leading Party cadres at all levels. With the lapse of time, following their own circuitous paths, they eventually attained a heightened political consciousness and consequently began to adopt a sceptical or wait-and-see attitude towards the "cultural revolution, " or even resisted and opposed it. Many people were assailed either more or less severely for this very reason. Such a state of affairs could not but provide openings to be exploited by opportunists, careerists and conspirators, not a few of whom were escalated to high or even key positions.

4)Practice has shown that the "cultural revolution" did not in fact constitute a revolution or social progress in any sense, nor could it possibly have done so. It was the people and not the enemy at all who were thrown into disorder by the "cultural revolution. " Therefore, from beginning to end, it did not turn "great disorder under heaven" into "great order under heaven, " nor could it conceivably have done so. After the state power in the form of the people's democratic dictatorship was established in China, and especially after socialist transformation was basically completed and the exploiters were eliminated as classes, the socialist revolution represented a fundamental break with the past in both content and method, though its tasks remained to be completed. Of course, it was essential to take proper account of certain undesirable phenomena that undoubtedly existed in Party and state organisms and to remove them by correct measures in conformity with the Constitution, the laws and the Party Constitution. But on no account should the theories and methods of the "cultural revolution" have been applied. Under socialist conditions, there is no economic or political basis for carrying out a great political revolution in which "one class overthrows another. " It decidedly could not come up with any constructive programme, but could only bring grave disorder, damage and retrogression in its train. History has shown that the "cultural revolution", initiated by a leader labouring under a misapprehension and capitalized on by counter-revolutionary cliques, led to domestic turmoil and brought catastrophe to the Party, the state and the whole people.

The "cultural revolution" can be divided into three stages.

1)From the initiation of the "cultural revolution" to the Ninth National Congress of the Party in April 1969. The convening of the enlarged Political Bureau meeting of the Central Committee of the Party in May 1966 and the 11th Plenary Session of the Eighth Central Committee in August of that year marked the launching of the "cultural revolution" on a full scale. These two meetings adopted the May 16 Circular and the Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China Concerning the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution respectively. They launched an erroneous struggle against the so-called anti-Party clique of Peng Zhen, Luo Ruiqing, Lu Dingyi and Yang Shangkun and the so-called headquarters of Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping. They wrongly re-organized the central leading organs, set up the "Cultural Revolution Group Under the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party" and gave it a major part of the power of the Central Committee. In fact, Comrade Mao Zedong's personal leadership characterized by "Left" errors took the place of the collective leadership of the Central Committee, and the cult of Comrade Mao Zedong was frenziedly pushed to an extreme. Lin Biao, Jiang Qing, Kang Sheng, Zhang Chunqiao and others, acting chiefly in the name of the "Cultural Revolution Group", exploited the situation to incite people to "overthrow everything and wage full scale civil war. " Around February 1967, at various meetings, Tan Zhenlin, Chen Yi, Ye Jianying, Li Fuchun, Li Xiannian, Xu Xiangqian, Nie Rongzhen and other Political Bureau Members and leading comrades of the Military Commission of the Central Committee sharply criticized the mistakes of the "cultural revolution. " This was labelled the "February adverse current" and they were attacked and repressed. Comrades Zhu De and Chen Yun were also wrongly criticized. Almost all leading Party and government departments in the different spheres and localities were stripped of their power or re-organized. The chaos was such that it was necessary to send in the People's Liberation Army to support the Left, the workers and the peasants and to institute military control and military training. It played a positive role in stabilizing the situation, but it also produced some negative consequences. The Ninth Congress of the Party legitimatized the erroneous theories and practices of the "cultural revolution, " and so reinforced the positions of Lin Biao, Jiang Qing, Kang Sheng and others in the Central Committee of the Party. The guidelines of the Ninth Congress were wrong, ideologically, politically and organizationally.

2)From the Ninth National Congress of the Party to its 10th National Congress in August 1973. In 1970-1971 the counter-revolutionary Lin Biao clique plotted to capture supreme power and attempted an armed counter-revolutionary coup d'etat. Such was the outcome of the "cultural revolution" which overturned a series of fundamental Party principles. Objectively, it announced the failure of the theories and practices of the "cultural revolution". Comrades Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai ingeniously thwarted the plotted coup. Supported by Comrade Mao Zedong, Comrade Zhou Enlai took charge of the day-to-day work of the Central Committee and things began to improve in all fields. During the criticism and repudiation of Lin Biao in 1972, he correctly proposed criticism of the ultra-Left trend of thought. In fact, this was an extension of the correct proposals put forward around February 1967 by many leading comrades of the Central Committee who had called for the correction of the errors of the "cultural revolution". Comrade Mao Zedong, however, erroneously held that the task was still to oppose the "ultra-Right". The 10th Congress of the Party perpetuated the "left" errors of the Ninth Congress and made Wang Hongwen a vice-chairman of the Party. Jiang Qing, Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan and Wang Hongwen formed a gang of four inside the Political Bureau of the Central Committee, thus strengthening the influence of the counter-revolutionary Jiang Qing clique.

3)From the 10th Congress of the Party to October 1976. Early in 1974 Jiang Qing, Wang Hongwen and others launched a campaign to "criticize Lin Biao and Confucius. " Jiang Qing and the others directed the spearhead at Comrade Zhou Enlai, which was different in nature from the campaign conducted in some localities and organizations where individuals involved in and incidents connected with the conspiracies of the counter-revolutionary Lin Biao clique were investigated. Comrade Mao Zedong approved the launching of the movement to "criticize Lin Biao and Confucius. " When he found that Jiang Qing and the others were turning it to their advantage in order to seize power, he severely criticized them. He declared that they had formed a gang of four and pointed out that Jiang Qing harboured the wild ambition of making herself chairman of the Central Committee and "forming a cabinet" by political manipulation. In 1975, when Comrade Zhou Enlai was seriously ill, Comrade Deng Xiaoping, with the support of Comrade Mao Zedong, took charge of the day-to-day work of the Central Committee. He convened an enlarged meeting of the Military Commission of the Central Committee and several other important meetings with a view to solving problems in industry, agriculture, transport and science and technology, and began to straighten out work in many fields so that the situation took an obvious turn for the better. However, Comrade Mao Zedong could not bear to accept systematic correction of the errors of the "cultural revolution" by Comrade Deng Xiaoping and triggered the movement to "criticize Deng and counter the Right deviationist trend to reverse correct verdicts", once again plunging the nation into turmoil. In January of that year, Comrade Zhou Enlai passed away. Comrade Zhou Enlai was utterly devoted to the Party and the people and stuck to his post till his dying day. He found himself in an extremely difficult situation throughout the "cultural revolution. " He always kept the general interest in mind, bore the heavy burden of office without complaint, racking his brains and untiringly endeavouring to keep the normal work of the Party and the state going, to minimize the damage caused by the "cultural revolution" and to protect many Party and non-Party cadres. He waged all forms of struggle to counter sabotage by the counter-revolutionary Lin Biao and Jiang Qing cliques. His death left the whole Party and people in the most profound grief. In April of the same year, a powerful movement of protest signalled by the Tian An Men Incident swept the whole country, a movement to mourn for the late Premier Zhou Enlai and oppose the gang of four. In essence, the movement was a demonstration of support for the Party's correct leadership as represented by Comrade Deng Xiaoping. It laid the ground for massive popular support for the subsequent overthrow of the counter-revolutionary Jiang Qing clique. The Political Bureau of the Central Committee and Comrade Mao Zedong wrongly assessed the nature of the Tian An Men Incident and dismissed Comrade Deng Xiaoping from all his posts inside and outside the Party. As soon as Comrade Mao Zedong passed away in September 1976, the counter-revolutionary Jiang Qing clique stepped up its plot to seize supreme Party and state leadership. Early in October of the same year, the Political Bureau of the Central Committee, executing the will of the Party and the people, resolutely smashed the clique and brought the catastrophic "cultural revolution" to an end. This was a great victory won by the entire Party, army and people after prolonged struggle. Hua Guofeng, Ye Jianying, Li Xiannian and other comrades played a vital part in the struggle to crush the clique.

Chief responsibility for the grave "Left" error of the "cultural revolution", an error comprehensive in magnitude and protracted in duration, does indeed lie with Comrade Mao Zedong. But after all it was the error of a great proletarian revolutionary. Comrade Mao Zedong paid constant attention to overcoming shortcomings in the life of the Party and state. In his later years, however, far from making a correct analysis of many problems, he confused right and wrong and the people with the enemy during the "cultural revolution". While making serious mistakes, he repeatedly urged the whole Party to study the works of Marx, Engels and Lenin conscientiously and imagined that his theory and practice were Marxist and that they were essential for the consolidation of the dictatorship of the proletariat. Herein lies his tragedy. While persisting in the comprehensive error of the "cultural revolution, " he checked and rectified some of its specific mistakes, protected some leading Party cadres and non-Party public figures and enabled some leading cadres to return to important leading posts. He led the struggle to smash the counter-revolutionary Lin Biao clique. He made major criticisms and exposures of Jiang Qing, Zhang Chunqiao and others, frustrating their sinister ambition to seize supreme leadership. All this was crucial to the subsequent and relatively painless overthrow of the gang of four by the Party. In his later years, he still remained alert to safeguarding the security of the country, stood up to the pressure of the social-imperialists, pursued a correct foreign policy, firmly supported the just struggles of all peoples, outlined the correct strategy of the three worlds, and advanced the important principle that China would never seek hegemony. During the "cultural revolution" the Party was not destroyed, but maintained its unity. The State Council and the People's Liberation Army were still able to do much of their essential work. The Fourth National People's Congress which was attended by deputies from all nationalities and all walks of life was convened and it determined the composition of the State Council with Comrades Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping as the core of its leadership. The foundation of China's socialist system remained intact and it was possible to continue socialist economic construction. China remained united and exerted a significant influence on international affairs. All these important facts are inseparable from the great role played by Comrade Mao Zedong. For these reasons, and particularly for his vital contributions to the cause of the revolution over the years, the Chinese people have always regarded Comrade Mao Zedong as their respected and beloved great leader and teacher.

The struggle waged by the Party and the people against "Left" errors and against the counter-revolutionary Lin Biao and Jiang Qing cliques during the "cultural revolution" was arduous and full of twists and turns, and it never ceased. Rigorous tests throughout the "cultural revolution" have proved that standing on the correct side in the struggle were the overwhelming majority of Members of the Eighth Central Committee of the Party and the Members it elected to its Political Bureau, Standing Committee and Secretariat. Most of the Party cadres, whether they were wrongly dismissed or remained at their posts, whether they were rehabilitated early or late, are loyal to the Party and people and steadfast in their belief in the cause of socialism and communism. Most of the intellectuals, model workers, patriotic democrats, patriotic overseas Chinese and cadres and masses of all strata and all nationalities who had been wronged and persecuted did not waver in their love for the motherland and in their support for the Party and socialism. Party and state leaders such as Comrades Liu Shaoqi, Peng Dehuai, He Long and Tao Zhu and all other Party and non-Party comrades who were persecuted to death in the "cultural revolution" will live for ever in the memories of the Chinese people. It was through the joint struggles waged by the entire Party and the masses of workers, peasants, PLA officers and men, intellectuals, educated youth and cadres that the havoc wrought by the "cultural revolution" was somewhat mitigated. Some progress was made in China's economy despite tremendous losses. Grain output increased relatively steadily. Significant achievements were scored in industry, communications and capital construction and in science and technology. New railways were built and the Changjiang River Bridge at Nanjing was completed; a number of large enterprises using advanced technology went into operation; hydrogen bomb tests were successfully undertaken and man-made satellites successfully launched and retrieved; and new hybrid strains of long-grained rice were developed and popularized. Despite the domestic turmoil, the People's Liberation Army bravely defended the security of the motherland. And new prospects were opened up in the sphere of foreign affairs. Needless to say, none of these successes can be attributed in any way to the "cultural revolution, " without which China would have scored far greater achievements for her cause. Although China suffered from sabotage by the counter-revolutionary Lin Biao and Jiang Qing cliques during the "cultural revolution", she won out over them in the end. The Party, the people's political power, the people's army and Chinese society on the whole remained unchanged in nature. Once again history has proved that Chinese people are a great people and that the Communist Party and socialist system have enormous vitality.

The victory won in overthrowing the counter-revolutionary Jiang Qing clique, or the Gang of Four, in October 1976 saved the Party and the nation. But the "Cultural Revolution" left the serious consequences of political, ideological, organizational and economic confusion. The second generation of the collective leadership with Deng Xiaoping at the core shaped after the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China in December 1978. (Mao Zedong was at the core of the CPC first generation of collective leadership, and Deng was an important member among that leadership.) The second generation of collective leadership undertook the arduous tasks, realized the historic turn and enabled China to enter a new historical period of building socialism.

Before and after the convocation of the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee, the Party led and supported the large-scale debate about whether practice is the sole criterion for testing truth. The nationwide debate smashed the traditional personality cult on Chairman Mao Zedong and shattered the argument of the "two whatevers" , the notion pursued by then Party Chairman Hua Guofeng after the death of Chairman Mao. The erroneous notion included that whatever policy decisions Mao had made must be firmly upheld and whatever instructions he had given must be followed unswervingly. The statement first appeared in an editorial entitled "Study the Documents Carefully and Grasp the Key Link", which was published simultaneously in the People's Daily, the Liberation Army Daily and later in the monthly journal Hongqi, or the Red Flag. The debate upheld again the ideological principles of emancipating the mind and seeking truth from facts and brought order out of chaos.

The Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee decisively discarded the slogan "Take class struggle as the key link" , the "Left" political line which had become unsuitable in a socialist society, and made the strategic decision to concentrate instead on socialist modernization. The Party made efforts to set things right and started the all-round reform, which took economic development as the central task. In addition, it decided to open up to the outside world. Meanwhile, to counter the erroneous ideological trends during the process of setting wrong things right, the Party took a clear-cut stand for sticking to the socialist road, the People's democratic dictatorship, the leadership by the Communist Party, and Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought. The basic line of "one central task and two basic points" , the shortened form of making economic development as the central task while adhering to the Four Cardinal Principles and persevering in reform and the open policy, were shaped, which decided the basis of the Party's basic principles at a new stage.

The implementation of the correct ideological and political lines must be ensured by a correct organizational line. The historic turn required the strengthening of organizational building. The Party urged to make all ranks of cadres more revolutionary, younger, better educated and more competent professionally. It abolished the de facto system of life tenure in leading Party and government posts and enabled new cadres to succeed the old ones in the central leading organs of the Party.

The CPC examined a large number of cases in the history of the Party in which the charges made against people had been false or exaggerated, or which had been dealt with incorrectly, and redressed the injustices that had been done. The Sixth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee held from June 27 to 29, 1981, examined and approved the "Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People's Republic of China" . In this resolution the central committee made a scientific summation of the major events in the history of the Party over the 32 years since the founding of the People's Republic of China. They categorically negated the value of the "Cultural Revolution" and of the theory of "continuing the revolution under the dictatorship of the proletariat". But they also affirmed the importance of Mao Zedong's historical role and systematically expounded Mao Zedong Thought. With the development of domestic and international situation, it proved the courage and high vision of the CPC Central Committee to make such decisions.

After basically finishing bringing order out of chaos, the CPC held the Twelfth National Congress in September 1982. It pointed out to "integrate the universal truth of Marxism with the concrete realities of China, blaze a path of our own and build a socialism with Chinese characteristics" . It also set the strategic objective of quadrupling the gross annual value of China's industrial and agricultural output by the end of 20th century and then achieved modernizations by the middle of the next century.

The new period features the reform and open-up. The drive of reform and opening started from the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee and comprehensively developed after the Twelfth CPC National Congress. It began from rural areas to urban areas, from reform of the economic structure to restructuring on various aspect and from invigorating the domestic economy to opening China to the outside world.

The reform in rural areas conformed to the specific Chinese conditions. Chinese farmers created the household contract responsibility system with remuneration linked to output. The Chinese central authorities respected the willingness of common farmers and actively supported the tryouts and then introduced the advanced experience to the whole country within a couple of years. The CPC Central Committee decided to abolish the People's commune system but not to privatize the farmland. The Party stressed the need to maintain the responsibility system, to improve the system of unified management combined with independent management and to deepen the reform in rural China. The 800 million farmers have gained the decision-making power on farmland management. The abolishment of unified purchase and arranged purchase by the government and the loosening of the restriction on farm produce prices helped the agriculture step out of the long-term predicament. The agricultural economy grew fast toward specialization, commercialization and socialization. Chinese farmers as well as urban dwellers benefited from the reform. The thriving of township enterprises was another great achievement done by the Chinese farmers. The enterprises, making surplus rural labor shift from farming, blazed a new trail on enriching rural people and stimulating the industry and the whole economic restructuring as well.

Meeting requirements of the new period, the Third Plenary Session of the Twelfth CPC Central Committee, held in Beijing on October 20, 1984, adopted the "Decision on Reform of the Economic Structure". The decision stated that the basic task of the reform was to completely change the old structure that has stunted the development of the productive forces and to establish a vigorous socialist structure of a specifically Chinese character. It rejected the traditional concept that a planned economy is in direct opposition to a commodity economy and declared that China would have a planned market economy based on public ownership. This decision was a programmatic document designed to serve as a guide to the overall reform of the economic structure and a further development of Marxist political economics. The CPC Central Committee later launched the reform of the system for managing science and technology and the reform of the education structure. They also laid down the principles and objective for reform of the political structure.

In May 1980 the CPC Central Committee and the State Council decided to establish four special economic zones in the cities of Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Shantou(Guangdong Province)and Xiamen(Fujian Province), which was the significant measure for China to use overseas funds and draw on advanced experience on technology and management from foreign countries.

The achievements in the construction of the special economic zones have given people a definite answer that the special economic zones are socialist, not capitalist. In May 1984 they decided to open another 14 coastal port cities. Other areas, such as the Yangtze River Delta, the Pearl River Delta, the southeast Fujian Province and the Bohai Sea Rim, were opened to the outside world for economic development. The State Council also approved that Hainan Island became a province and another special economic zone. The extensive opening and fast economic development of the coastal areas, which had the population of about 200 million, boosted the nationwide reform and open-up and the economic construction.

The successful reform and smooth economic construction must be ensured by correct ideology and policies. The CPC Central Committee stressed the strategy of keeping working at two tasks and being steadfast with regard to both. On the one hand, they focused on the reform and opening process; and on the other hand, they stressed the crackdown on crime. The nation was determined to attach great importance both on economic development and democratic legal system, both on material progress and ethical and cultural progress. The Sixth Plenary Session of the Twelfth Central Committee, held in Beijing on September 28, 1986, published the "Resolution of the CPC Central Committee on the Guiding Principles for Building a Socialist Society with an Advanced Level of Culture and Ideology". The enhancement of ethical and cultural progress must boost the socialist modernizations, the overall reform, the open-up policy and the perseverance in the Four Cardinal Principles. Throughout the process of reform and opening, the CPC Central Committee urged the people to adhere to the Four Cardinal Principourgeois liberalization.

To solve the problems of Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan, Deng Xiaoping, considering the historical and current conditions, advocated the concept of "one country, two systems" for the peaceful reunification of the nation. The concept means that within the People's Republic of China, the mainland with its more than one billion people will maintain the socialist system while Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan will continue under the capitalist system. When meeting with British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in September 1982, Deng elaborated China's basic position on the issues of Hong Kong, safeguarding the sovereignty and dignity of his motherland. In 1983 he suggested the six principles aiming at Taiwan issues, strongly showing his willingness for peaceful reunification. However, he reiterated that China will never rule out the possibility of using non-peaceful means if any force tries to split Taiwan from the motherland.

After the Twelfth National Congress of the CPC, China solved the problems about the returns of Hong Kong and Macao. The governments of the People's Republic of China and the United Kingdom formally signed a joint declaration concerning the Hong Kong issues on December 19, 1984, in Beijing after two years' negotiations. The Joint Declaration states that the government of the People's Republic of China will resume the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong on July 1, 1997. This sets a good example for resolving the Macao issues. The governments of the People's Republic of China and the Portuguese Republic signed another joint declaration on April 13, 1987, in Beijing. The Joint Declaration states that the government of the People's Republic of China will resume the exercise of sovereignty over Macao on December 20, 1999.

The Thirteenth National Congress of the CPC was held in Beijing from October 25 to November 1, 1987. It systematically expounded the theory of the primary stage of socialism in China and defined the Party's basic line of "one central task and two basic points" for building socialism with Chinese characteristics during that stage. It also affirmed a three-step development strategy, which was launched by Deng Xiaoping. China worked out the three-step development strategy in the early 1980s to achieve the country's modernization. It included to double the country's 1980 per capita GNP in the first ten years of the strategy's implementation with adequate food and clothing for the people as the goal(first step), to redouble the doubled per capita GNP by the end of the century(second step), and to achieve modernizations by the middle of the next century(third step). The congress highly valued the process of building socialism with Chinese characteristics since the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh CPC Central Committee. Building socialism with Chinese characteristics is the second historic leap next to the first one, which refers to the success of the new-democratic revolution led by the first generation of collective leadership with Mao Zedong at the core, in the process of integrating Marxism with the Chinese realities.

After the convocation of the Thirteenth National Congress, the CPC Central Committee led the people of all nationalities in united effort to surmount difficulties, stabilize social and political situation and further develop the national economy. China accelerated the economic development from 1984 to 1988, showing a vigorous picture of mutual promotion between agriculture and industry, between rural areas and cities, and between reform and social development. While the scale of the national economy attained a new height, some problems appeared, such as the fluctuation of commodity prices and duplicated construction. The CPC Central Committee decided to spend a certain period on improving the economic environment and rectifying the economic order to create a more favorable environment so that the reform would go smoothly. A political disturbance occurred in late spring and early summer of 1989. The Party and the government, taking a clear-cut stand against the turmoil, depended on the Chinese people to quell the anti-revolutionary rebellion. It defended the socialist regime, safeguarded the basic interests of the people and guaranteed further reform and opening. Meanwhile, the CPC Central Committee declared that the Party's basic line and decisions made on the Thirteenth National Congress would not change. The Fourth Plenary Session of the Thirteenth Central Committee elected the new collective leadership. After the fourth and the fifth plenary sessions of the Thirteenth Central Committee, the second generation of the collective leadership with Deng Xiaoping at the core transferred the power gradually to the third generation of the collective leadership with Jiang Zemin at the core. The Central Committee extensively persevered in the Party's basic line and continued focusing on economic development while attaching equal importance to both tasks of economic growth and ethical and cultural progress. They also strengthened the ideological, political and organizational work. The CPC Central Committee observed the radical international changes sober-mindedly and dealt with the challenge calmly. China concentrated on handling its own affairs well. The CPC Central Committee made successive decisions on strengthening the anti-corruption drive, improving the economic environment and rectifying the economic order, deepening the reform, reinforcing the close ties between the Party and the people, and opening Shanghai's Pudong New Area. They also drew up the Eighth Five-Year Plan and the Ten-Year Program for the National Economic and Social Development. Furthermore, they tried to do well on state-owned large and medium-sized enterprises and further strengthen agriculture and work in rural areas. All the decisions were absolutely correct at the crucial times.

The socialist modernization needs not only a stable domestic situation but also a peaceful international environment. After judging and sizing up the situation, Deng Xiaoping put forward a series of diplomatic strategies. Peace and development are the two major issues in the world. China pursues the independent and peaceful foreign policy and opposes hegemonism and power politics and safeguards world peace. It advocates establishing a new international political order and a new international economic order on the basis of the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, including mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, mutual non-aggression, non-interference in each other's internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence. Deng said that China always belongs to the Third World and never seeks hegemony itself. Deng masterminded to establish diplomatic relations between the People's Republic of China and the United States of America, sign a peaceful and friendly treaty with Japan, normalize the relations between the CPC and the Soviet Communist Party, and develop friendly ties with neighboring countries and countries from the Third World. Deng visited many foreign countries and met lots of foreign leaders in China as well. The international situation changed violently and the cause of socialism experienced the twists and turns at the turn of 1980s and 1990s. Deng urged other Chinese leaders to attempt to hold their own ground in sober minds and deal with the situation properly. The national sovereignty and security must be safeguarded as the top priority. Deng has made tremendous contributions to China's modernization drive, the protection of world peace and the development of the human being.

In early 1992, Deng Xiaoping's talks given during his visits to southern China were published. The talks by him scientifically summarized the basic practice and experiences since the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee. Deng theoretically solved the major problems which had troubled the Chinese people and trammeled their minds for a long time, especially the relationship between the socialism and the market economy. The talks stressed that we should adhere to the basic line for a hundred years, with no vacillation. Deng urged the Chinese people to emancipate the mind more, be bolder and develop faster than before in conducting reform and opening to the outside and must not lose opportunities. The Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee held a plenum in March 1992. The participants entirely agreed with Deng's point of view and regarded it as the important guide for the reform and economic development and the coming Fourteenth National Congress of the CPC. The talks also have far-reaching historic significance for the cause of socialist modernization. Then, the CPC Central Committee and the State Council made a series of decisions to speed up the reform and opening.

The Party held the Fourteenth National Congress in October 1992. With Deng's talks and the convocation of the congress as the symbols, China's socialist modernization drive and the reform and opening ushered in a new period of development.

After the Fourteenth National Congress of the CPC, the Central Committee with Jiang Zemin at the core hold high the great banner of Deng Xiaoping Theory of building socialism with Chinese characteristics. They led the whole Party, the armed forces and the people of all nationalities to conscientiously implement the important policy decisions made by the Fourteenth Congress of "seizing the current opportunity to deepen the reform and open China wider to the outside world, promoting development and maintaining stability". Meanwhile, they fostered both material progress and ethical and cultural progress and realized the sustained, fast and sound economic development. The national economy and social development greatly advanced and the second step of Deng Xiaoping's three-step development strategy had been achieved beforehand.

China's GNP increased annually by 12 percent from 1991 to 1995, reaching 5.76 trillion yuan in 1995. The target of quadrupling the country's 1980 per capita GNP was attained five years ahead of time. China obtained the breakthrough in the reform on economic restructuring, and basically shaped the overall setup of opening to the outside world. Rural people and urban residents also bettered their lives. During the five years, the average annual per capita income for living expenses increased by 7.7 percent for city dwellers in real terms, while the average annual per capita net income went up by 4.5 percent for rural residents in real terms. The nation witnessed an overall social development and took new steps in promoting ethical and cultural progress while significant progress was made in developing socialist democracy and improving the legal system. And the social stability was further consolidated.

The Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPC on Certain Important Questions on Promoting Socialist Ethical and Cultural Progress, approved by the Sixth Plenary Session of the Central Committee on October 10, 1996, sets the major objectives for socialist ethical and cultural progress in the coming 15 years.

Deng Xiaoping passed away on February 19, 1997. Deng was an eminent leader who enjoyed high prestige among the whole Party, the Chinese armed forces and the people of all China's ethnic groups. He was a great Marxist, a proletarian revolutionist, a great statesman, a military strategist, a diplomat, a long-tested communist fighter, the chief architect of China's socialist reform and open-up drive and modernization construction, and the founder of the theory of building socialism with Chinese characteristics. The Chinese people of all nationalities, including the compatriots from Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan and overseas Chinese felt deeply grieved for the death of Deng. Lots of foreign state leaders also lamented over Deng's death. The Chinese people were determined to turn grief into strength to push forward, under the leadership of the CPC Central Committee with Jiang Zemin at the core, the reform and opening to the outside world and the cause of socialist modernization, the endeavor which was initiated by Deng Xiaoping. The Chinese people will make efforts to turn China into a prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced and modern socialist country.

The government of the People's Republic of China resumed the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong on July 1, 1997. Hong Kong's return to the motherland symbolized the great success of the concept of "one country, two systems" and an important step forward for the Chinese people in the process of the nation's peaceful reunification.

The Fifteenth National Congress of the CPC, which was held in September 1997, approved the work report of the Fourteenth Central Committee and the resolution on the amendments to the Constitution of the Communist Party of China. The Congress unanimously agreed to take Deng Xiaoping Theory as the guiding ideology for the Party and write it into the CPC Constitution. The Congress also elected the new Central Committee. The First Plenary Session of the Fifteenth Central Committee elected Jiang Zemin General Secretary and Chairman of the Military Commission of the CPC Central Committee.

The national economy maintained the appropriately fast growth in 1997. The GDP of 1997 reached 7.4772 trillion yuan, with an increase of 8.8 percent over the previous year. The added value of agriculture reached 1.3674 trillion yuan, adding by 3.5 percent and with its proportion in the whole economy declining by 1.9 percent. The added value of industry reached 3.677 trillion yuan, increasing by 10.8 percent and with its proportion in the whole economy enlarging by 0.2 percent. The added value of the service sector reached 2.4328 trillion yuan, increasing by 8.2 percent and with its proportion in the whole economy expanding by 1.7 percent. The labor productivity of the whole society in 1997 was valued at 5,637 yuan, increasing by 7.5 percent over the previous year.

The national economy continued to grow rapidly and market prices basically remained stable. The margin of price rises continued to fall. Retail prices rose by 0.8 percent, representing a drop of 5.3 percentage points over 1996, and consumer prices rose by 2.8 percent, 5.5 percentage points less than the figure for the previous year.

In 1997, China enjoyed a favorable international balance of payments, both on the current account and the capital account, and the country's national foreign exchange reserves reached 139.9 billion US dollars, with an annual increase of 34.9 billion US dollars.

The income of the urban and rural population increased significantly and the standard of living was improved. In 1997 the average per capita disposable income reached 5,160 yuan for city dwellers, representing an increase of 3.4 percent in real terms than the previous year. The average per capita net income of rural residents rose to 2,090 yuan, representing an increase of 4.6 percent in real terms than the previous year.

------

* The double-track system for labour refers to a combination of the system of the eight-hour day in factories, rural areas and government offices with a system of part-time work and part-time study in factories and rural areas. The double-track system for education means a system of full-time schooling combined with a system of part-time work and part-time study. 

A Brief Chinese Chronology

notice: you might click the url (http://english.gov.cn/2005-08/06/content_24233.htm) to see further details of china historic timetable

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## pzkilo

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## pzkilo

&#25105;&#25214;&#21040;&#20102;&#20010;&#24086;&#23376;&#65292;&#33258;&#24049;&#21435;&#30475;&#21543;&#12290; &#36825;&#26679;&#30340;&#24086;&#23376;&#24456;&#22810;&#65292;&#25152;&#20197;&#19968;&#24320;&#22987;&#23601;&#26377;&#35828; &#23395;&#32463;&#36148;&#21448;&#26469;&#20102;&#12290;
?? - ??[1] - ?
&#21407;&#26469;&#26377;&#36807;&#24456;&#38271;&#30340;&#19968;&#20010;&#35752;&#35770;&#38476;&#20992;&#30340;&#24086;&#23376;&#65292;&#21487;&#24796;&#25105;&#25214;&#19981;&#21040;&#20102;&#65292;&#37027;&#37324;&#38754;&#36777;&#35770;&#30340;&#26356;&#22810;&#65292;&#32473;&#36148;&#20986;&#30340;&#36164;&#26009;&#20063;&#26356;&#22810;&#12290;


----------



## rcrmj

pzkilo said:


> &#35841;&#36319;&#20320;&#30606;&#20105;&#65311;&#36825;&#26159;&#27493;&#25112;&#30340;&#22797;&#21512;&#24339;&#65292;&#27493;&#24339;&#12290;&#25152;&#20197;&#36825;&#20040;&#38271;&#65292;&#30452;&#21644;&#24367;&#65292;&#38590;&#36947;&#20320;&#19981;&#30693;&#36947;&#35282;&#24230;&#30340;&#38382;&#39064;&#65292;&#20391;&#38754;&#30475;&#26159;&#24367;&#30340;&#65292;&#24367;&#30340;&#24339;&#20307;&#20174;&#27491;&#38754;&#30475;&#36807;&#26469;&#20063;&#26159;&#30452;&#30340;&#30693;&#36947;&#19981;&#65292;&#29305;&#21035;&#26159;&#22312;&#31435;&#20307;&#24863;&#27604;&#36739;&#24046;&#30340;&#20013;&#22269;&#21476;&#30011;&#37324;&#12290;&#25105;&#19981;&#30693;&#36947;&#20320;&#22312;&#37027;&#20960;&#20010;&#35770;&#22363;&#19978;&#35752;&#35770;&#36825;&#20010;&#65292;&#35201;&#26159;&#36825;&#20010;&#38382;&#39064;&#37117;&#27809;&#20154;&#25552;&#20986;&#21644;&#35752;&#35770;&#36807;&#65292;&#25105;&#30495;&#24576;&#30097;&#20320;&#37027;&#35770;&#22363;&#30340;&#19987;&#19994;&#24615;&#12290; &#32780;&#20320;&#20854;&#20182;&#30340;&#38382;&#39064;&#37117;&#34987;&#25552;&#21040;&#36807;&#24182;&#34987;&#20154;&#35299;&#31572;&#36807;&#65292;&#35299;&#31572;&#30340;&#20063;&#27604;&#36739;&#21512;&#29702;&#12290;
> 
> &#32780;&#19988;&#25105;&#20197;&#21069;&#21488;&#24335;&#26426;&#19978;&#30340;4&#26412;&#21508;&#22269;&#19987;&#23478;&#32534;&#20889;&#30340;&#19990;&#30028;/&#20013;&#22269;&#21476;&#20195;&#20853;&#22120;&#20070;&#31821;&#31561;&#20070;&#31821;&#20013;&#25552;&#21040;&#38476;&#20992;&#26102;&#21487;&#20174;&#27809;&#29992;&#20320;&#19978;&#38754;&#30340;&#36825;&#20123;&#25554;&#30011;&#26469;&#20570;&#35777;&#25454;&#29978;&#33267;&#20304;&#35777;&#12290;&#26368;&#22810;&#20063;&#26159;&#29992;&#12298;&#27494;&#21170;&#24635;&#35201;&#12299;&#37324;&#30340;3&#23574;&#20992;&#26469;&#65292;&#35828;&#38476;&#20992;&#21487;&#33021;&#20687;&#36825;&#20010;&#12290;
> 
> &#25105;&#20197;&#21069;&#37027;&#20010;&#24086;&#23376;&#30340;&#35752;&#35770;&#32773;&#20204;&#35201;&#20040;&#26159;&#36164;&#28145;&#21382;&#21490;&#29233;&#22909;&#32773;&#65292;&#20853;&#22120;&#29233;&#22909;&#32773;&#65292;&#35201;&#20040;&#26159;&#21382;&#21490;&#31995;&#25110;&#21382;&#21490;&#31995;&#19987;&#19994;&#27605;&#19994;&#30340;&#65292;&#29978;&#33267;&#21382;&#21490;&#19987;&#19994;&#32844;&#31216;&#30340;&#12290; &#24403;&#28982;&#65292;&#25105;&#24182;&#19981;&#26159;&#35828;&#20182;&#20204;&#23601;100%&#23545;&#65292;&#27605;&#31455;&#20182;&#20204;&#31639;&#19981;&#19978;&#26159;&#32477;&#23545;&#30340;&#26435;&#23041;&#20154;&#22763;&#12290;&#20294;&#26159;&#21487;&#20449;&#24230;&#27604;&#20854;&#20182;&#19968;&#20123;&#35770;&#22363;&#30340;&#20154;&#39640;&#30340;&#22810;&#65292;&#25105;&#20026;&#20160;&#20040;&#19981;&#20449;&#65311;
> btw&#65292;&#25105;&#20197;&#21069;&#19968;&#24320;&#22987;&#26102;&#20542;&#21521;&#20110;&#35748;&#20026;&#36825;&#20010;&#26159;&#38476;&#20992;&#30340;&#65292; &#20320;&#36148;&#30340;&#36825;&#20123;&#22270;&#21253;&#25324;&#24339;&#30340;&#25105;&#37117;&#26377;&#65292;&#20063;&#26366;&#29992;&#26469;&#24403;&#20570;&#38476;&#20992;&#30340;&#35777;&#25454;&#65292;&#21738;&#24597;&#29616;&#22312;&#20869;&#24515;&#24847;&#24895;&#37117;&#24076;&#26395;&#33021;&#20986;&#20010;&#20160;&#20040;&#35777;&#25454;&#33021;&#35777;&#26126;&#65292; &#32431;&#21382;&#21490;&#29233;&#22909;&#32773;&#21644;&#20853;&#22120;&#29233;&#22909;&#32773;&#30340;&#24847;&#24895;&#32610;&#20102; &#65292;&#27605;&#31455;&#36825;&#20040;&#26377;&#21517;&#30340;&#8220;&#22914;&#22681;&#32780;&#36827;&#65292;&#20154;&#39532;&#30342;&#30862;"&#30340;&#20853;&#22120;&#21364;&#23547;&#19981;&#21040;&#65292;&#26159;&#38750;&#24120;&#36951;&#25022;&#30340;&#12290; &#20294;&#26159;&#36947;&#29702;&#26159;&#36234;&#36777;&#36234;&#26126;&#30340;&#65292;&#32463;&#36807;&#35752;&#35770;&#21644;&#25105;&#33258;&#24049;&#30340;&#21028;&#26029;&#65292;&#25105;&#36873;&#25321;&#25509;&#21463;&#24339;&#30340;&#35266;&#28857;&#12290;
> &#20107;&#23454;&#19981;&#20197;&#20010;&#20154;&#20027;&#35266;&#35266;&#28857;&#20026;&#36716;&#31227;&#12290;


 
&#20320;&#36824;&#22312;&#30606;&#32534;··&#20160;&#20040;&#35282;&#24230;&#38382;&#39064;&#20063;&#22826;&#19994;&#20313;&#20102;&#21543;&#65311;&#37027;&#20026;&#20160;&#20040;&#25152;&#26377;&#30340;&#21476;&#20195;&#38476;&#20992;&#22270;&#37117;&#26159;&#30452;&#30340;&#65311;&#65311;&#23601;&#31639;&#26159;&#20174;&#20391;&#38754;&#30475;&#21435;&#20102;&#29572;&#30340;&#24339;&#36523;&#20063;&#20250;&#32544;&#32469;&#22763;&#20853;&#21322;&#20010;&#36523;&#20307;&#21834;&#65281;&#65311;&#20877;&#35828;&#20102;&#65292;&#20219;&#20309;&#22797;&#21512;&#21453;&#36716;&#24339;&#30340;&#24339;&#35282;&#37117;&#19968;&#33324;&#35201;&#31895;&#19968;&#28857;&#30340;&#65292;&#21407;&#22240;&#26159;&#24339;&#35282;&#35201;&#25215;&#25285;&#24456;&#22823;&#30340;&#25289;&#21147;&#65292;&#20294;&#26159;&#25152;&#26377;&#22270;&#37324;&#26174;&#31034;&#30340;&#26411;&#31471;&#21453;&#32780;&#24456;&#32454;&#65292;&#19981;&#31649;&#26159;&#27493;&#25112;&#30340;&#36824;&#26159;&#39569;&#20853;&#30340;&#25105;&#19981;&#21482;&#35201;&#21644;&#20320;&#35299;&#37322;&#22810;&#23569;&#27425;&#21435;&#20102;&#24339;&#29572;&#21518;&#37117;&#26159;*&#21453;&#36807;&#26469;*&#24367;&#30340;&#65281;&#65281;&#25152;&#20197;&#25165;&#21483;&#23427;&#20204;&#26159;&#22797;&#21512;&#21453;&#36716;&#24339;&#25026;&#21527;&#65311;&#21435;&#35835;&#35835;&#26377;&#20851;&#20110;&#24339;&#31661;&#30340;&#36164;&#26009;&#21543;&#65281;

&#35770;&#22363;&#30340;&#19987;&#19994;&#24615;&#19981;&#26159;&#20320;&#25105;&#21487;&#20197;&#32943;&#23450;&#30340;&#65292;&#25214;&#21040;&#19968;&#20010;&#20559;&#21521;&#20110;&#20320;&#35266;&#28857;&#30340;&#23601;&#19987;&#19994;&#32780;&#19981;&#21516;&#30340;&#23601;&#19981;&#19987;&#19994;&#65292;&#20320;&#36825;&#19981;&#26159;&#22312;&#30606;&#35828;&#36824;&#26159;&#20160;&#20040;&#65311;&#30340;&#30830;&#38476;&#20992;&#30340;&#24418;&#29366;&#65292;&#29992;&#36884;&#36824;&#26377;&#23384;&#22312;&#19982;&#21542;&#36824;&#22312;&#35752;&#35770;&#20013;··&#20294;&#20320;&#19981;&#33021;&#29992;&#20320;&#23545;&#22797;&#21512;&#21453;&#36716;&#24339;&#30340;&#19981;&#35748;&#35782;&#26469;&#21542;&#23450;&#23427;&#30340;&#21487;&#33021;&#24615;&#21834;&#65311;

&#23601;&#20973;&#22270;&#37324;&#23601;&#21487;&#20197;&#30830;&#23450;&#22763;&#20853;&#25658;&#24102;&#30340;&#26159;&#20992;&#20307;&#65292;&#19981;&#31649;&#26159;&#38476;&#20992;&#36824;&#26159;&#20854;&#20182;&#30340;&#65292;&#20294;&#20320;&#35828;&#26159;&#21435;&#20102;&#29572;&#30340;&#24339;&#20307;&#20063;&#22826;&#29301;&#24378;&#20102;&#12290;&#37027;&#20010;&#32454;&#30340;&#31471;&#23601;&#26159;&#20856;&#22411;&#30340;&#20992;&#26564;&#26159;&#22312;&#19978;&#38754;&#32544;&#32499;&#23376;&#21644;&#20854;&#20182;&#36866;&#21512;&#25163;&#25569;&#29992;&#30340;&#65292;&#28982;&#21518;&#25972;&#20010;&#38271;&#26465;&#29289;&#20307;&#30340;&#20004;&#36793;&#26159;&#27973;&#39068;&#33394;&#30340;&#35828;&#26126;&#20102;&#26159;&#20995;&#65292;&#21407;&#22240;&#24456;&#31616;&#21333;&#65292;&#21776;&#20195;&#30340;&#20992;&#21073;&#22823;&#22810;&#26159;&#29992;&#22841;&#38050;&#24037;&#33402;&#30340;&#65292;&#20992;&#20995;&#21644;&#20992;&#32972;&#26159;&#29992;&#19981;&#21516;&#38887;&#24230;&#30340;&#38050;&#21046;&#25104;&#30340;&#65292;&#32463;&#36807;&#25171;&#30952;&#20043;&#21518;&#20250;&#24456;&#20142;&#30340;··

&#30340;&#30830;&#20107;&#23454;&#19981;&#33021;&#20197;&#20010;&#20154;&#35266;&#28857;&#20026;&#36716;&#31227;&#65292;&#20294;&#20320;&#30693;&#36947;&#19981;&#65292;&#20320;&#30340;&#35266;&#28857;&#24456;&#26159;&#29301;&#24378;&#21644;&#19994;&#20313;&#65292;&#25152;&#20197;&#25105;&#20250;&#36136;&#30097;&#20320;&#35266;&#28857;&#30340;&#21487;&#20449;&#24230;&#12290;


----------



## rcrmj

pzkilo said:


> &#25105;&#25214;&#21040;&#20102;&#20010;&#24086;&#23376;&#65292;&#33258;&#24049;&#21435;&#30475;&#21543;&#12290; &#36825;&#26679;&#30340;&#24086;&#23376;&#24456;&#22810;&#65292;&#25152;&#20197;&#19968;&#24320;&#22987;&#23601;&#26377;&#35828; &#23395;&#32463;&#36148;&#21448;&#26469;&#20102;&#12290;
> ?? - ??[1] - ?
> &#21407;&#26469;&#26377;&#36807;&#24456;&#38271;&#30340;&#19968;&#20010;&#35752;&#35770;&#38476;&#20992;&#30340;&#24086;&#23376;&#65292;&#21487;&#24796;&#25105;&#25214;&#19981;&#21040;&#20102;&#65292;&#37027;&#37324;&#38754;&#36777;&#35770;&#30340;&#26356;&#22810;&#65292;&#32473;&#36148;&#20986;&#30340;&#36164;&#26009;&#20063;&#26356;&#22810;&#12290;


 
&#21621;&#21621;&#65292;&#20320;&#23601;&#20973;&#8216;&#26377;&#20154;&#35828;&#8217;&#26159;&#21435;&#20102;&#29572;&#30340;&#24339;&#32780;&#35748;&#23450;&#20182;&#23601;&#26159;&#19987;&#23478;&#30340;&#35266;&#28857;&#65311;&#20320;&#26377;&#27809;&#26377;&#21435;&#30740;&#31350;&#30740;&#31350;&#26377;&#20851;&#19987;&#19994;&#30340;&#24339;&#31661;&#30693;&#35782;&#26469;&#25903;&#25345;&#36825;&#19968;&#35770;&#28857;&#65311;&#65311;&#65311;&#25105;&#30475;&#19990;&#30028;&#19978;&#21482;&#26377;&#21476;&#20195;&#30340;&#33521;&#22269;&#38271;&#24339;&#21435;&#20102;&#29572;&#21518;&#26159;&#26377;&#28857;&#30452;&#30340;&#65292;&#21407;&#22240;&#26159;&#20182;&#20204;&#20351;&#29992;&#30340;&#26159;&#21333;&#20307;&#24339;&#65292;&#20294;&#26159;&#20063;&#21482;&#26377;&#21476;&#20195;&#30340;&#33521;&#22269;&#20891;&#38431;99%&#20351;&#29992;&#21333;&#20307;&#24339;&#12290;&#20687;&#21476;&#20195;&#30340;&#38463;&#25289;&#20271;&#65292;&#20013;&#20122;&#21644;&#20013;&#22269;&#26089;&#23601;&#20351;&#29992;&#21453;&#36716;&#22797;&#21512;&#24339;&#20102;&#12290;


----------



## pzkilo

rcrmj;1705369&#20320;&#36824;&#22312;&#30606;&#32534;··&#20160;&#20040;&#35282;&#24230;&#38382;&#39064;&#20063;&#22826;&#19994;&#20313;&#20102;&#21543;&#65311;&#37027;&#20026;&#20160;&#20040;&#25152;&#26377;&#30340;&#21476;&#20195;&#38476;&#20992;&#22270;&#37117;&#26159;&#30452;&#30340;&#65311;&#65311;
&#30475;&#30475;&#20320;&#36825;&#22238;&#22797;&#65292;&#20026;&#20160;&#20040;&#21476;&#20195;&#38476;&#20992;&#22270;&#37117;&#26159;&#30452;&#30340;&#65311;&#22240;&#20026;&#37027;&#20123;&#19981;&#26159;&#38476;&#20992;&#30340;&#22270;&#34987;&#20320;&#35748;&#20026;&#26159;&#38476;&#20992;&#65292;&#25152;&#20197;&#22914;&#27492;&#32780;&#24050;&#12290;&#26126;&#30333;&#19981;&#65311;&#30452;&#25509;&#35828;&#65292;&#29616;&#22312;&#26681;&#26412;&#27809;&#26377;&#20445;&#23384;&#30340;&#38476;&#20992;&#30340;&#21476;&#30011;&#12290;ok&#20102;&#19981;&#65311;
[COLOR="red" said:


> &#23601;&#31639;&#26159;&#20174;&#20391;&#38754;&#30475;&#21435;&#20102;&#29572;&#30340;&#24339; &#36523;&#20063;&#20250;&#32544;&#32469;&#22763;&#20853;&#21322;&#20010;&#36523;&#20307;&#21834;[/COLOR]&#65281;&#65311;&#20877;&#35828;&#20102;&#65292;&#20219;&#20309;&#22797;&#21512;&#21453;&#36716;&#24339;&#30340;&#24339;&#35282;&#37117;&#19968;&#33324;&#35201;&#31895;&#19968;&#28857;&#30340;&#65292;&#21407;&#22240;&#26159;&#24339;&#35282;&#35201;&#25215;&#25285;&#24456;&#22823;&#30340;&#25289;&#21147; &#65292;&#20294;&#26159;&#25152;&#26377;&#22270;&#37324;&#26174;&#31034;&#30340;&#26411;&#31471;&#21453;&#32780;&#24456;&#32454;&#65292;&#19981;&#31649;&#26159;&#27493;&#25112;&#30340;&#36824;&#26159;&#39569;&#20853;&#30340;&#25105;&#19981;&#21482;&#35201;&#21644;&#20320;&#35299;&#37322;&#22810;&#23569;&#27425;&#21435;&#20102;&#24339;&#29572;&#21518; &#37117;&#26159;&#21453;&#36807;&#26469;&#24367;&#30340;&#65281;&#65281;&#25152;&#20197;&#25165;&#21483;&#23427;&#20204;&#26159;&#22797;&#21512;&#21453;&#36716;&#24339;&#25026;&#21527;&#65311;&#21435;&#35835;&#35835;&#26377;&#20851;&#20110;&#24339;&#31661;&#30340;&#36164;&#26009;&#21543;&#65281;
> 
> &#35770;&#22363;&#30340;&#19987;&#19994;&#24615;&#19981;&#26159;&#20320;&#25105;&#21487;&#20197;&#32943;&#23450;&#30340;&#65292;&#25214;&#21040;&#19968;&#20010;&#20559;&#21521;&#20110;&#20320;&#35266;&#28857;&#30340;&#23601;&#19987;&#19994;&#32780;&#19981;&#21516;&#30340;&#23601;&#19981;&#19987;&#19994;&#65292;&#20320;&#36825;&#19981;&#26159;&#22312;&#30606;&#35828;&#36824;&#26159;&#20160;&#20040; &#65311;&#30340;&#30830;&#38476;&#20992;&#30340;&#24418;&#29366;&#65292;&#29992;&#36884;&#36824;&#26377;&#23384;&#22312;&#19982;&#21542;&#36824;&#22312;&#35752;&#35770;&#20013;··&#20294;&#20320;&#19981;&#33021;&#29992;&#20320;&#23545;&#22797;&#21512;&#21453;&#36716;&#24339;&#30340;&#19981;&#35748;&#35782;&#26469;&#21542;&#23450;&#23427; &#30340;&#21487;&#33021;&#24615;&#21834;&#65311;
> 
> &#23601;&#20973;&#22270;&#37324;&#23601;&#21487;&#20197;&#30830;&#23450;&#22763;&#20853;&#25658;&#24102;&#30340;&#26159;&#20992;&#20307;&#65292;&#19981;&#31649;&#26159;&#38476;&#20992;&#36824;&#26159;&#20854;&#20182;&#30340;&#65292;&#20294;&#20320;&#35828;&#26159;&#21435;&#20102;&#29572;&#30340;&#24339;&#20307;&#20063;&#22826;&#29301;&#24378;&#20102;&#12290;&#37027;&#20010;&#32454;&#30340;&#31471; &#23601;&#26159;&#20856;&#22411;&#30340;&#20992;&#26564;&#26159;&#22312;&#19978;&#38754;&#32544;&#32499;&#23376;&#21644;&#20854;&#20182;&#36866;&#21512;&#25163;&#25569;&#29992;&#30340;&#65292;&#28982;&#21518;&#25972;&#20010;&#38271;&#26465;&#29289;&#20307;&#30340;&#20004;&#36793;&#26159;&#27973;&#39068;&#33394;&#30340;&#35828;&#26126;&#20102;&#26159;&#20995;&#65292;&#21407;&#22240;&#24456;&#31616; &#21333;&#65292;&#21776;&#20195;&#30340;&#20992;&#21073;&#22823;&#22810;&#26159;&#29992;&#22841;&#38050;&#24037;&#33402;&#30340;&#65292;&#20992;&#20995;&#21644;&#20992;&#32972;&#26159;&#29992;&#19981;&#21516;&#38887;&#24230;&#30340;&#38050;&#21046;&#25104;&#30340;&#65292;&#32463;&#36807;&#25171;&#30952;&#20043;&#21518;&#20250;&#24456;&#20142;&#30340; ··
> 
> &#30340;&#30830;&#20107;&#23454;&#19981;&#33021;&#20197;&#20010;&#20154;&#35266;&#28857;&#20026;&#36716;&#31227;&#65292;&#20294;&#20320;&#30693;&#36947;&#19981;&#65292;&#20320;&#30340;&#35266;&#28857;&#24456;&#26159;&#29301;&#24378;&#21644;&#19994;&#20313;&#65292;&#25152;&#20197;&#25105;&#20250;&#36136;&#30097;&#20320;&#35266;&#28857;&#30340;&#21487; &#20449;&#24230;&#12290;
> 
> &#21621;&#21621;&#65292;&#20320;&#23601;&#20973;&#8216;&#26377;&#20154;&#35828;&#8217;&#26159;&#21435;&#20102;&#29572;&#30340;&#24339;&#32780;&#35748;&#23450;&#20182;&#23601;&#26159;&#19987;&#23478;&#30340;&#35266;&#28857;&#65311;&#20320;&#26377;&#27809;&#26377;&#21435;&#30740;&#31350;&#30740;&#31350;&#26377;&#20851;&#19987;&#19994;&#30340;&#24339;&#31661;&#30693;&#35782;&#26469;&#25903;&#25345; &#36825;&#19968;&#35770;&#28857;&#65311;&#65311;&#65311;&#25105;&#30475;&#19990;&#30028;&#19978;&#21482;&#26377;&#21476;&#20195;&#30340;&#33521;&#22269;&#38271;&#24339;&#21435;&#20102;&#29572;&#21518;&#26159;&#26377;&#28857;&#30452;&#30340;&#65292;&#21407;&#22240;&#26159;&#20182;&#20204;&#20351;&#29992;&#30340;&#26159;&#21333;&#20307;&#24339;&#65292;&#20294;&#26159;&#20063;&#21482;&#26377;&#21476; &#20195;&#30340;&#33521;&#22269;&#20891;&#38431;99%&#20351;&#29992;&#21333;&#20307;&#24339;&#12290;&#20687;&#21476;&#20195;&#30340;&#38463;&#25289;&#20271;&#65292;&#20013;&#20122;&#21644;&#20013;&#22269;&#26089;&#23601;&#20351;&#29992;&#21453;&#36716;&#22797;&#21512;&#24339;&#20102;&#12290;


 

---------- Post added at 05:17 PM ---------- Previous post was at 05:17 PM ----------

[/COLOR]


rcrmj;1705369&#20320;&#36824;&#22312;&#30606;&#32534;··&#20160;&#20040;&#35282;&#24230;&#38382;&#39064;&#20063;&#22826;&#19994;&#20313;&#20102;&#21543;&#65311;&#37027;&#20026;&#20160;&#20040;&#25152;&#26377;&#30340;&#21476;&#20195;&#38476;&#20992;&#22270;&#37117;&#26159;&#30452;&#30340;&#65311;&#65311;[COLOR="red" said:


> &#23601;&#31639;&#26159;&#20174;&#20391;&#38754;&#30475;&#21435;&#20102;&#29572;&#30340;&#24339; &#36523;&#20063;&#20250;&#32544;&#32469;&#22763;&#20853;&#21322;&#20010;&#36523;&#20307;&#21834;[/COLOR]&#65281;&#65311;&#20877;&#35828;&#20102;&#65292;&#20219;&#20309;&#22797;&#21512;&#21453;&#36716;&#24339;&#30340;&#24339;&#35282;&#37117;&#19968;&#33324;&#35201;&#31895;&#19968;&#28857;&#30340;&#65292;&#21407;&#22240;&#26159;&#24339;&#35282;&#35201;&#25215;&#25285;&#24456;&#22823;&#30340;&#25289;&#21147; &#65292;&#20294;&#26159;&#25152;&#26377;&#22270;&#37324;&#26174;&#31034;&#30340;&#26411;&#31471;&#21453;&#32780;&#24456;&#32454;&#65292;&#19981;&#31649;&#26159;&#27493;&#25112;&#30340;&#36824;&#26159;&#39569;&#20853;&#30340;&#25105;&#19981;&#21482;&#35201;&#21644;&#20320;&#35299;&#37322;&#22810;&#23569;&#27425;&#21435;&#20102;&#24339;&#29572;&#21518; &#37117;&#26159;&#21453;&#36807;&#26469;&#24367;&#30340;&#65281;&#65281;&#25152;&#20197;&#25165;&#21483;&#23427;&#20204;&#26159;&#22797;&#21512;&#21453;&#36716;&#24339;&#25026;&#21527;&#65311;&#21435;&#35835;&#35835;&#26377;&#20851;&#20110;&#24339;&#31661;&#30340;&#36164;&#26009;&#21543;&#65281;
> 
> &#35770;&#22363;&#30340;&#19987;&#19994;&#24615;&#19981;&#26159;&#20320;&#25105;&#21487;&#20197;&#32943;&#23450;&#30340;&#65292;&#25214;&#21040;&#19968;&#20010;&#20559;&#21521;&#20110;&#20320;&#35266;&#28857;&#30340;&#23601;&#19987;&#19994;&#32780;&#19981;&#21516;&#30340;&#23601;&#19981;&#19987;&#19994;&#65292;&#20320;&#36825;&#19981;&#26159;&#22312;&#30606;&#35828;&#36824;&#26159;&#20160;&#20040; &#65311;&#30340;&#30830;&#38476;&#20992;&#30340;&#24418;&#29366;&#65292;&#29992;&#36884;&#36824;&#26377;&#23384;&#22312;&#19982;&#21542;&#36824;&#22312;&#35752;&#35770;&#20013;··&#20294;&#20320;&#19981;&#33021;&#29992;&#20320;&#23545;&#22797;&#21512;&#21453;&#36716;&#24339;&#30340;&#19981;&#35748;&#35782;&#26469;&#21542;&#23450;&#23427; &#30340;&#21487;&#33021;&#24615;&#21834;&#65311;
> 
> &#23601;&#20973;&#22270;&#37324;&#23601;&#21487;&#20197;&#30830;&#23450;&#22763;&#20853;&#25658;&#24102;&#30340;&#26159;&#20992;&#20307;&#65292;&#19981;&#31649;&#26159;&#38476;&#20992;&#36824;&#26159;&#20854;&#20182;&#30340;&#65292;&#20294;&#20320;&#35828;&#26159;&#21435;&#20102;&#29572;&#30340;&#24339;&#20307;&#20063;&#22826;&#29301;&#24378;&#20102;&#12290;&#37027;&#20010;&#32454;&#30340;&#31471; &#23601;&#26159;&#20856;&#22411;&#30340;&#20992;&#26564;&#26159;&#22312;&#19978;&#38754;&#32544;&#32499;&#23376;&#21644;&#20854;&#20182;&#36866;&#21512;&#25163;&#25569;&#29992;&#30340;&#65292;&#28982;&#21518;&#25972;&#20010;&#38271;&#26465;&#29289;&#20307;&#30340;&#20004;&#36793;&#26159;&#27973;&#39068;&#33394;&#30340;&#35828;&#26126;&#20102;&#26159;&#20995;&#65292;&#21407;&#22240;&#24456;&#31616; &#21333;&#65292;&#21776;&#20195;&#30340;&#20992;&#21073;&#22823;&#22810;&#26159;&#29992;&#22841;&#38050;&#24037;&#33402;&#30340;&#65292;&#20992;&#20995;&#21644;&#20992;&#32972;&#26159;&#29992;&#19981;&#21516;&#38887;&#24230;&#30340;&#38050;&#21046;&#25104;&#30340;&#65292;&#32463;&#36807;&#25171;&#30952;&#20043;&#21518;&#20250;&#24456;&#20142;&#30340; ··
> 
> &#30340;&#30830;&#20107;&#23454;&#19981;&#33021;&#20197;&#20010;&#20154;&#35266;&#28857;&#20026;&#36716;&#31227;&#65292;&#20294;&#20320;&#30693;&#36947;&#19981;&#65292;&#20320;&#30340;&#35266;&#28857;&#24456;&#26159;&#29301;&#24378;&#21644;&#19994;&#20313;&#65292;&#25152;&#20197;&#25105;&#20250;&#36136;&#30097;&#20320;&#35266;&#28857;&#30340;&#21487; &#20449;&#24230;&#12290;
> 
> &#21621;&#21621;&#65292;&#20320;&#23601;&#20973;&#8216;&#26377;&#20154;&#35828;&#8217;&#26159;&#21435;&#20102;&#29572;&#30340;&#24339;&#32780;&#35748;&#23450;&#20182;&#23601;&#26159;&#19987;&#23478;&#30340;&#35266;&#28857;&#65311;&#20320;&#26377;&#27809;&#26377;&#21435;&#30740;&#31350;&#30740;&#31350;&#26377;&#20851;&#19987;&#19994;&#30340;&#24339;&#31661;&#30693;&#35782;&#26469;&#25903;&#25345; &#36825;&#19968;&#35770;&#28857;&#65311;&#65311;&#65311;&#25105;&#30475;&#19990;&#30028;&#19978;&#21482;&#26377;&#21476;&#20195;&#30340;&#33521;&#22269;&#38271;&#24339;&#21435;&#20102;&#29572;&#21518;&#26159;&#26377;&#28857;&#30452;&#30340;&#65292;&#21407;&#22240;&#26159;&#20182;&#20204;&#20351;&#29992;&#30340;&#26159;&#21333;&#20307;&#24339;&#65292;&#20294;&#26159;&#20063;&#21482;&#26377;&#21476; &#20195;&#30340;&#33521;&#22269;&#20891;&#38431;99%&#20351;&#29992;&#21333;&#20307;&#24339;&#12290;&#20687;&#21476;&#20195;&#30340;&#38463;&#25289;&#20271;&#65292;&#20013;&#20122;&#21644;&#20013;&#22269;&#26089;&#23601;&#20351;&#29992;&#21453;&#36716;&#22797;&#21512;&#24339;&#20102;&#12290;


 
&#25105;&#30340;&#22825;&#21834;&#65292;&#25105;&#32473;&#20320;&#30340;&#24086;&#23376;&#20320;&#30475;&#20102;&#20040;&#65311; &#22312;&#37027;&#20010;&#24086;&#23376;&#37324;&#20320;&#20960;&#20046;&#20320;&#25552;&#30340;&#38382;&#39064;&#37117;&#26377;&#20154;&#25552;&#36807;&#24182;&#34987;&#35299;&#31572;&#20102;&#65292;&#32780;&#19988;&#27604;&#36739;&#21512;&#29702;&#30340;&#35299;&#31572;&#20102;&#12290;&#32780;&#25105;&#20197;&#21069;&#30475;&#36807;&#30340;&#38271;&#36148;&#20013;&#21487;&#20197;&#19981;&#22840;&#24352;&#30340;&#35828;&#65292;&#20320;&#25552;&#21040;&#38382;&#39064;&#20840;&#37096;&#26377;&#20154;&#25552;&#36807;&#65292;&#20320;&#27809;&#25552;&#21040;&#30340;&#38382;&#39064;&#20854;&#20182;&#20154;&#25552;&#21040;&#30340;&#20063;&#22810;&#30528;&#65292; 2&#27966;&#23545;&#31435;&#65292; &#24339;&#27966;&#32473;&#20986;&#30340;&#35299;&#31572;&#34987;&#35748;&#20026;&#19981;&#26159;&#29301;&#24378;&#30340;&#65292;&#36824;&#26159;&#21512;&#29702;&#30340;&#12290;&#21040;&#21518;&#38754;&#19968;&#20197;&#21069;&#20992;&#27966;&#30340;&#37117;&#35748;&#23450;&#20102;&#24339;&#27966;&#30340;&#35299;&#37322;&#12290; &#25105;&#30830;&#23454;&#27809;&#30740;&#31350;&#30528;&#19996;&#35199;&#65292;&#21487;&#26159;&#21035;&#20154;&#26377;&#20154;&#30740;&#31350;&#65292;&#32780;&#19988;&#25105;&#20250;&#30475;&#21644;&#21028;&#26029;&#12290; &#32780;&#20320;&#26469;&#26469;&#21435;&#21435;&#23601;&#26159;&#37027;&#20960;&#20010;&#26089;&#34987;&#20154;&#35752;&#35770;&#36879;&#20102;&#65292;&#20687;&#20154;&#23478;&#24086;&#23376;&#37324;&#35828;&#30340;&#24050;&#32463;&#25104;&#23395;&#32463;&#30340;&#38382;&#39064;&#35266;&#28857;&#65292; &#36824;&#20197;&#20026;&#21035;&#20154;&#19994;&#20313;&#65292;&#25342;&#20154;&#29273;&#24935;&#36824;&#20197;&#20026;&#33258;&#24049;&#22810;&#19987;&#19994;&#12290;&#23682;&#19981;&#21487;&#31505;&#65311;

&#20197;&#20320;&#29616;&#22312;&#36825;&#24515;&#24577;&#38500;&#38750;&#30011;&#37324;&#30340;&#20154;&#22797;&#27963;&#26469;&#21578;&#35785;&#20320;&#65292;&#19981;&#28982;&#20272;&#35745;&#20320;&#20250;&#20449;&#35841;&#65311; &#25105;&#19978;&#38754;&#19968;&#24320;&#22987;&#23601;&#35828;&#20102;&#65292;&#25105;&#19981;&#35748;&#20026;&#20182;&#20204;&#23601;&#26159;&#26435;&#23041;&#19987;&#23478;&#65292;&#21482;&#26159;&#22240;&#20026;&#20182;&#20204;&#30340;&#30693;&#35782;&#36523;&#20221;&#65292;&#26368;&#37325;&#35201;&#30340;&#26159;&#25105;&#21028;&#26029;&#20182;&#20204;&#32473;&#20986;&#30340;&#35299;&#37322;&#21512;&#24773;&#21512;&#29702;&#65292;&#33267;&#23569;&#27604;&#20992;&#27966;&#26356;&#21152;&#21512;&#29702;&#12290; &#25152;&#20197;&#25105;&#26356;&#21152;&#36873;&#25321;&#30456;&#20449;&#24339;&#27966;&#30340;&#35805;&#12290;&#19981;&#21487;&#20197;&#20040;&#65311;&#32780;&#20320;&#21602;&#65292;&#20174;&#19968;&#24320;&#22987;&#22238;&#24086;&#23601;&#24102;&#26377;&#27987;&#21402;&#24773;&#32490;&#65292;&#32473;&#25105;&#19968;&#31181;&#27987;&#37325;&#30340;&#30334;&#24230;&#36148;&#21543;&#30340;&#27668;&#24687;&#24863;&#65292;&#35752;&#35770;&#20010;&#19996;&#35199;&#20063;&#35201;&#36825;&#20040;&#27987;&#30340;&#25932;&#23545;&#24773;&#32490;&#65292;&#30495;&#26377;&#24847;&#24605;&#12290;&#26368;&#37325;&#35201;&#30340;&#26159;&#20992;&#27966;&#25552;&#36807;&#30340;&#19996;&#35199;&#65292;&#21253;&#25324;&#20320;&#30340;&#65292;&#37117;&#27809;&#20160;&#20040;&#20915;&#23450;&#24615;&#30340;&#35777;&#25454;&#35777;&#26126;&#37027;&#23601;&#26159;&#38476;&#20992;&#65292;&#29978;&#33267;&#26159;&#20992;&#12290;

&#20320;&#19978;&#38754;&#21508;&#20010;&#38382;&#39064;&#65292;&#25105;&#37117;&#21487;&#20197;&#22312;&#21508;&#24086;&#23376;&#37324;&#25214;&#20986;&#22238;&#31572;&#65292;&#20294;&#26159;&#22522;&#20110;&#36825;&#23436;&#20840;&#19981;&#26159;&#35752;&#35770;&#38382;&#39064;&#30340;&#27668;&#27675;&#21644;&#24577;&#24230;&#65292;&#25105;&#23454;&#22312;&#27809;&#37027;&#20010;&#24515;&#24605;&#21435;&#19968;&#21477;&#19968;&#21477;&#21435;&#25214;&#21435;&#25688;&#20986;&#26469;&#20877;&#36148;&#22238;&#36825;&#37324;&#32473;&#20320;&#65292;&#26368;&#38271;&#30340;&#37027;&#20010;&#24086;&#23376;&#36164;&#26009;&#26368;&#22810;&#30340;&#65292;&#20272;&#35745;&#20063;&#25214;&#19981;&#21040;&#20102;&#65292;&#22823;&#20960;&#24180;&#21069;&#30340;&#20107;&#20102;&#12290;&#20917;&#19988;&#25105;&#20272;&#35745;&#20320;&#23545;&#37027;&#20123;&#31572;&#26696;&#20063;&#26159;&#19981;&#23633;&#19968;&#39038;&#30340;&#12290;

&#35805;&#19981;&#25237;&#26426;&#21322;&#21477;&#22810;&#12290; &#37027;&#22823;&#23478;&#21508;&#33258;&#20445;&#30041;&#33258;&#24049;&#30340;&#35266;&#28857;&#22914;&#20309;&#65311;


----------



## rcrmj

pzkilo said:


> ---------- Post added at 05:17 PM ---------- Previous post was at 05:17 PM ----------
> 
> [/COLOR]
> 
> &#25105;&#30340;&#22825;&#21834;&#65292;&#25105;&#32473;&#20320;&#30340;&#24086;&#23376;&#20320;&#30475;&#20102;&#20040;&#65311; &#22312;&#37027;&#20010;&#24086;&#23376;&#37324;&#20320;&#20960;&#20046;&#20320;&#25552;&#30340;&#38382;&#39064;&#37117;&#26377;&#20154;&#25552;&#36807;&#24182;&#34987;&#35299;&#31572;&#20102;&#65292;&#32780;&#19988;&#27604;&#36739;&#21512;&#29702;&#30340;&#35299;&#31572;&#20102;&#12290;&#32780;&#25105;&#20197;&#21069;&#30475;&#36807;&#30340;&#38271;&#36148;&#20013;&#21487;&#20197;&#19981;&#22840;&#24352;&#30340;&#35828;&#65292;&#20320;&#25552;&#21040;&#38382;&#39064;&#20840;&#37096;&#26377;&#20154;&#25552;&#36807;&#65292;&#20320;&#27809;&#25552;&#21040;&#30340;&#38382;&#39064;&#20854;&#20182;&#20154;&#25552;&#21040;&#30340;&#20063;&#22810;&#30528;&#65292; 2&#27966;&#23545;&#31435;&#65292; &#24339;&#27966;&#32473;&#20986;&#30340;&#35299;&#31572;&#34987;&#35748;&#20026;&#19981;&#26159;&#29301;&#24378;&#30340;&#65292;&#36824;&#26159;&#21512;&#29702;&#30340;&#12290;&#21040;&#21518;&#38754;&#19968;&#20197;&#21069;&#20992;&#27966;&#30340;&#37117;&#35748;&#23450;&#20102;&#24339;&#27966;&#30340;&#35299;&#37322;&#12290; &#25105;&#30830;&#23454;&#27809;&#30740;&#31350;&#30528;&#19996;&#35199;&#65292;&#21487;&#26159;&#21035;&#20154;&#26377;&#20154;&#30740;&#31350;&#65292;&#32780;&#19988;&#25105;&#20250;&#30475;&#21644;&#21028;&#26029;&#12290; &#32780;&#20320;&#26469;&#26469;&#21435;&#21435;&#23601;&#26159;&#37027;&#20960;&#20010;&#26089;&#34987;&#20154;&#35752;&#35770;&#36879;&#20102;&#65292;&#20687;&#20154;&#23478;&#24086;&#23376;&#37324;&#35828;&#30340;&#24050;&#32463;&#25104;&#23395;&#32463;&#30340;&#38382;&#39064;&#35266;&#28857;&#65292; &#36824;&#20197;&#20026;&#21035;&#20154;&#19994;&#20313;&#65292;&#25342;&#20154;&#29273;&#24935;&#36824;&#20197;&#20026;&#33258;&#24049;&#22810;&#19987;&#19994;&#12290;&#23682;&#19981;&#21487;&#31505;&#65311;
> 
> &#20197;&#20320;&#29616;&#22312;&#36825;&#24515;&#24577;&#38500;&#38750;&#30011;&#37324;&#30340;&#20154;&#22797;&#27963;&#26469;&#21578;&#35785;&#20320;&#65292;&#19981;&#28982;&#20272;&#35745;&#20320;&#20250;&#20449;&#35841;&#65311; &#25105;&#19978;&#38754;&#19968;&#24320;&#22987;&#23601;&#35828;&#20102;&#65292;&#25105;&#19981;&#35748;&#20026;&#20182;&#20204;&#23601;&#26159;&#26435;&#23041;&#19987;&#23478;&#65292;&#21482;&#26159;&#22240;&#20026;&#20182;&#20204;&#30340;&#30693;&#35782;&#36523;&#20221;&#65292;&#26368;&#37325;&#35201;&#30340;&#26159;&#25105;&#21028;&#26029;&#20182;&#20204;&#32473;&#20986;&#30340;&#35299;&#37322;&#21512;&#24773;&#21512;&#29702;&#65292;&#33267;&#23569;&#27604;&#20992;&#27966;&#26356;&#21152;&#21512;&#29702;&#12290; &#25152;&#20197;&#25105;&#26356;&#21152;&#36873;&#25321;&#30456;&#20449;&#24339;&#27966;&#30340;&#35805;&#12290;&#19981;&#21487;&#20197;&#20040;&#65311;&#32780;&#20320;&#21602;&#65292;&#20174;&#19968;&#24320;&#22987;&#22238;&#24086;&#23601;&#24102;&#26377;&#27987;&#21402;&#24773;&#32490;&#65292;&#32473;&#25105;&#19968;&#31181;&#27987;&#37325;&#30340;&#30334;&#24230;&#36148;&#21543;&#30340;&#27668;&#24687;&#24863;&#65292;&#35752;&#35770;&#20010;&#19996;&#35199;&#20063;&#35201;&#36825;&#20040;&#27987;&#30340;&#25932;&#23545;&#24773;&#32490;&#65292;&#30495;&#26377;&#24847;&#24605;&#12290;&#26368;&#37325;&#35201;&#30340;&#26159;&#20992;&#27966;&#25552;&#36807;&#30340;&#19996;&#35199;&#65292;&#21253;&#25324;&#20320;&#30340;&#65292;&#37117;&#27809;&#20160;&#20040;&#20915;&#23450;&#24615;&#30340;&#35777;&#25454;&#35777;&#26126;&#37027;&#23601;&#26159;&#38476;&#20992;&#65292;&#29978;&#33267;&#26159;&#20992;&#12290;
> 
> &#20320;&#19978;&#38754;&#21508;&#20010;&#38382;&#39064;&#65292;&#25105;&#37117;&#21487;&#20197;&#22312;&#21508;&#24086;&#23376;&#37324;&#25214;&#20986;&#22238;&#31572;&#65292;&#20294;&#26159;&#22522;&#20110;&#36825;&#23436;&#20840;&#19981;&#26159;&#35752;&#35770;&#38382;&#39064;&#30340;&#27668;&#27675;&#21644;&#24577;&#24230;&#65292;&#25105;&#23454;&#22312;&#27809;&#37027;&#20010;&#24515;&#24605;&#21435;&#19968;&#21477;&#19968;&#21477;&#21435;&#25214;&#21435;&#25688;&#20986;&#26469;&#20877;&#36148;&#22238;&#36825;&#37324;&#32473;&#20320;&#65292;&#26368;&#38271;&#30340;&#37027;&#20010;&#24086;&#23376;&#36164;&#26009;&#26368;&#22810;&#30340;&#65292;&#20272;&#35745;&#20063;&#25214;&#19981;&#21040;&#20102;&#65292;&#22823;&#20960;&#24180;&#21069;&#30340;&#20107;&#20102;&#12290;&#20917;&#19988;&#25105;&#20272;&#35745;&#20320;&#23545;&#37027;&#20123;&#31572;&#26696;&#20063;&#26159;&#19981;&#23633;&#19968;&#39038;&#30340;&#12290;
> 
> &#35805;&#19981;&#25237;&#26426;&#21322;&#21477;&#22810;&#12290; &#37027;&#22823;&#23478;&#21508;&#33258;&#20445;&#30041;&#33258;&#24049;&#30340;&#35266;&#28857;&#22914;&#20309;&#65311;


 
&#25105;&#20197;&#21069;&#30475;&#36807;&#36825;&#20010;&#35770;&#22363;··&#38382;&#39064;&#26159;&#25105;&#25152;&#25552;&#20986;&#26469;&#30340;&#38382;&#39064;&#65292;&#37027;&#20010;&#35770;&#22363;&#37324;&#26681;&#26412;&#27809;&#26377;&#20570;&#20986;&#19987;&#19994;&#30340;&#35299;&#31572;&#12290;&#32780;&#37027;&#20010;&#24339;&#27966;&#30340;&#20154;&#36148;&#20986;&#26469;&#35282;&#24339;&#30340;&#22270;&#26356;&#26159;&#19981;&#25915;&#33258;&#30772;&#65292;&#31532;&#19968;&#65307;&#21435;&#20102;&#29572;&#30340;&#24339;&#20307;&#26159;&#24367;&#26354;&#30340;&#65288;&#23436;&#20840;&#35777;&#26126;&#20102;&#25105;&#30340;&#35266;&#28857;&#65289;&#65292;&#31532;&#20108;&#65307;&#24339;&#20307;&#20013;&#38388;&#32454;&#20004;&#36793;&#21464;&#24471;&#29305;&#21035;&#30340;&#23485;&#28982;&#21518;&#20004;&#22836;&#26377;&#21464;&#32454;&#12290;&#20877;&#22238;&#36807;&#22836;&#26469;&#30475;&#30475;&#21476;&#20195;&#38476;&#20992;&#20853;&#22270;&#26080;&#19968;&#21015;&#22806;&#37117;&#26159;&#31508;&#30452;&#20027;&#20307;&#37117;&#26159;&#19968;&#26679;&#30340;&#23485;&#24230;&#65281;&#31532;&#19977;&#65307;&#20160;&#20040;&#37325;&#24515;&#38382;&#39064;&#26356;&#26159;&#32570;&#20047;&#19987;&#19994;&#24615;&#65292;&#22240;&#20026;&#20013;&#21476;&#20195;&#30340;&#30011;&#29305;&#21035;&#26159;&#26126;&#28165;&#20197;&#21069;&#26681;&#26412;&#27809;&#26377;&#36879;&#35270;&#65292;&#37325;&#24515;&#21407;&#29702;&#34701;&#20837;&#30011;&#20013;&#19981;&#20687;&#25991;&#33402;&#22797;&#20852;&#21518;&#30340;&#27431;&#27954;&#65292;&#25152;&#20197;&#29992;&#29616;&#20195;&#30340;&#30524;&#35266;&#30475;&#26469;&#37117;&#26159;&#24456;&#19981;&#31185;&#23398;&#30340;&#12290;&#31532;&#22235;&#65307;&#21518;&#38754;&#36148;&#20986;&#26469;&#30340;&#22763;&#20853;&#25658;&#24102;&#21368;&#20102;&#29572;&#35282;&#24339;&#22270;&#36827;&#19968;&#27493;&#35777;&#23454;&#20102;&#24339;&#20307;&#26159;&#24367;&#26354;&#21644;&#31895;&#32454;&#19981;&#21516;&#30340;&#65292;&#32780;&#19988;&#24339;&#38808;&#35201;&#22823;&#20986;&#24339;&#20307;&#24456;&#22810;&#24456;&#22810;&#65292;&#21407;&#22240;&#26159; AGAIN &#24339;&#20307;&#26159;&#24367;&#26354;&#30340;&#19981;&#26159;&#31508;&#30452;&#30340;&#65281;&#20320;&#20877;&#21453;&#36807;&#26469;&#30475;&#30475;&#37027;&#20123;&#38476;&#20992;&#20853;&#22270;&#65292;&#37027;&#20010;&#38271;&#38271;&#30340;&#29289;&#20307;&#21644;&#23427;&#30340;&#38808;&#20960;&#20046;&#19968;&#26679;&#23485;&#12290;


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## mil-avia

Historical maps of East Asia, South Asia and regions in between :






Not sure about accuracy of the first map circa 1827, the cartographer claimed that Tibet ruled lands that now part of N. E. Bangladesh and the ones that now border eastern Bangladesh






















Source

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## mil-avia

*Chinese Maps and Prints on the Tibet-Gorkha War of 1788-92 : *Link , Link


----------



## Ahmad Abdullah Ravian

did Really Chinese invented "PAPER" ??

my Hello to all Chinese i do respect their culture , history and a more Bright Future

​


----------



## mil-avia

Chinese Maps and Prints on the Tibet-Gorkha War of 1788-92 page no. 3 :




2000 × 2585


----------



## mil-avia

Chinese Maps and Prints on the Tibet-Gorkha War of 1788-92 page no. 7 :




2000 × 2585


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## mil-avia

Chinese Maps and Prints on the Tibet-Gorkha War of 1788-92 page no. 16 :




2000 × 2585


----------



## mil-avia

Chinese Maps and Prints on the Tibet-Gorkha War of 1788-92 page no. 18 :




2000 × 2585


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## mil-avia

Chinese Maps and Prints on the Tibet-Gorkha War of 1788-92 page no. 23 :




2000 × 2585


----------



## TheStrantrunCurve

mil-avia said:


> Historical maps of East Asia, South Asia and regions in between :
> 
> Not sure about accuracy of the first map circa 1827, the cartographer claimed that Tibet ruled lands that now part of N. E. Bangladesh and the ones that now border eastern Bangladesh


 

Yeah, Thats right the *Tufan empire *was at its height in the early 8th century and ruled much of *Nepal, northern India, and what is now Bangladesh*. And they even conquered Skardu, and Gilgit valley in northern Pakistan before the Chinese Tang Dynasty sent troops to southern Chitral in northwest Pakistan, where they replaced the pro-Tibet ruler.

That was i think one of those few centuries when Tibet was independent of China otherwise it has always been an integral part of Chinese empire.


----------



## GodlessBastard

pzkilo said:


> Toba ruled north China, they did. we call them &#40092;&#21329;(xianbei) or &#25299;&#36299;&#40092;&#21329;(tuoba or toba xianbei). They created wei empire(we call it as beiwei/ North wei?). Finally, Wei was insteaded by Sui empire.
> That period is a darkness and chao age. There were no law, freedom and justice etc , but blood, iron and death.



Hi, thanks for responding. Yes, I think that Toba and Xianbei might be the same thing, but I do not know all the names for the Toba. I have read books that also call them as T'o-po or Tabgac. I have not heard the Toba being associated with Wei; I thought Wei was one of the Three Kingdoms, which later became the Western Chin dynasty? The Toba Empire ruled North China from 385-550 C.E. and eventually expanded south to Loyang. 

However, there was a smaller Toba state that emerged after their first migration from the region between north Mongolia and north Manchuria. This first Toba state was called the Tai state, and existed from 338-376 C.E. I have tried to learn more about this interesting state, but I was unable to find much information.




> and the Tibetan ruler Fu-chen, who forged an empire in the same area after the Toba weakened?
> I dont know who is this fu-chen. &#33531;&#22362;&#65288;fu jian)?


 
Yes, I think Fu Jian is the same person. I am using an old history book, and it uses the name Fu-Chien.


----------



## Water Car Engineer

TheStrantrunCurve said:


> Yeah, Thats right the *Tufan empire *was at its height in the early 8th century and ruled much of *Nepal, northern India, and what is now Bangladesh*. And they even conquered Skardu, and Gilgit valley in northern Pakistan before the Chinese Tang Dynasty sent troops to southern Chitral in northwest Pakistan, where they replaced the pro-Tibet ruler.
> 
> That was i think one of those few centuries when Tibet was independent of China otherwise it has always been an integral part of Chinese empire.


 
Not Northern India, but Bengal they did.










> Tibet was independent of China otherwise it has always been an integral part of Chinese empire.



No, not really. It was pretty much always independent from the Han Chinese all the way into recent history. It was the Mongols and the Manchurians that invaded and conquered the Hans along with the Tibetans.

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## mil-avia

*Wei Yuan : a Qing period magistrate and writer of several important books including the "Supplementary Account of the Gurkhas" :* Link , Link


----------



## mil-avia

The Eastern Spread of Western Learning and Conditions in China Part 5 page no. 37 : Link, Link, Link, Link :




2000 × 2726


----------



## mil-avia

Japan and China: mutual representations in the modern era - Page 84 : Link, Link, Link :




1022 × 1617


----------



## Obambam

A very nice documentary about ancient Chinese military technology in HD.

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## Obambam

*[Rediscover China HQ] Big Day for Muslims / Festival of Chinese Muslims *

part 1





part 2

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## mil-avia

*Ibn Abi Waqqas the envoy of holy Prophet to China stopped in Chittagong port for a few days en route to the former :* Link


----------



## mil-avia

Niu Jie Mosque in Beijing, founded in 1362 :





1278 × 1685

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## CardSharp

mil-avia said:


> Niu Jie Mosque in Beijing, founded in 1362 :
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 1278 × 1685


 
I think traditional Chinese style is a good match for Islamic architecture

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## mil-avia

Knowledge of China in South Asia and trade relations between the two regions in ancient times:




Link



THE Legendary 'LAND OF CINA' , now Kinnaur


----------



## mil-avia

The Han Chinese have written more history than the historians of all the other nations of the world combined


----------



## mil-avia

Kautilya's _Arthashastra_: Book II, "The Duties of Government Superintendents" : page no. 32 : top two lines about China and fabrics imported from it highlighted :




2000 × 2588

Link


----------



## mil-avia

"Chinapatta" mentioned in several webpages


----------



## siegecrossbow

mil-avia said:


> The Han Chinese have written more history than the historians of all the other nations of the world combined



Kinda had to when the Civil Service Exam was really heavy on history (meaning you don't get to be an official unless you know the stuff).

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## milvipes

Obambam said:


>


Anybody else noticed the kitteh at 2:00 
How are cats viewed in most Islamic cultures?


----------



## mil-avia

Muttaqun OnLine - Cats: According to Quran and Sunnah

The Sunnah and Blessings in Healing effects of Cats

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## Obambam

milvipes said:


> Anybody else noticed the kitteh at 2:00
> How are cats viewed in most Islamic cultures?


 


> In the Islamic world, the cat was respected and protected because cats were loved by the Prophet Mohammed. From a very simple piece of advice to his actions, there are numerous reports concerning the Prophet Mohammed and cats, resulting in their subsequent acceptance among Muslims.



I think cats are well respected in the Islamic cultures.

Thanks for raising that question as I have learned something new about cats there. 
You can read up about it more here:

MuslimHeritage.com - Topics


----------



## CardSharp

mil-avia said:


> Muttaqun OnLine - Cats: According to Quran and Sunnah
> 
> The Sunnah and Blessings in Healing effects of Cats



Interesting thanks.


siegecrossbow said:


> Kinda had to when the Civil Service Exam was really heavy on history (meaning you don't get to be an official unless you know the stuff).


 
Don't forget the oracle bones. Being the good historians that they were, they even kept track of the accuracy of the divinations.


----------



## siegecrossbow

CardSharp said:


> Interesting thanks.
> 
> Don't forget the oracle bones. Being the good historians that they were, they even kept track of the accuracy of the divinations.


 
I thought astronomical observations began to replace the oracle bones later on in Chinese history as the method for divination?


----------



## CardSharp

siegecrossbow said:


> I thought astronomical observations began to replace the oracle bones later on in Chinese history as the method for divination?


 
I just meant that the Chinese had a habit of writing everything down even as early as the oracle bones.


----------



## Chinese

Let the discussions begin!

[/QUOTE]


----------



## gpit

I just get a copy of Henry Kissinger's <<On China>>. Share with you guys of his Prologue. I boldface some of the core paragraphs. Of these, the most striking one is *"China is singular"*, as statement that I emphasize numerous time.

Don't impose foreign values onto China, but you can influence it. Chinese value will evolve in its own pace...

----------------------------

*Prologue*

IN OCTOBER 1962, China&#8217;s revolutionary leader Mao
Zedong summoned his top military and political
commanders to meet with him in Beijing. Two thousand
miles to the west, in the forbidding and sparsely populated
terrain of the Himalayas, Chinese and Indian troops were
locked in a standoff over the two countries&#8217; disputed
border. The dispute arose over different versions of history:
India claimed the frontier demarcated during British rule,
China the limits of imperial China. India had deployed its
outposts to the edge of its conception of the border; China
had surrounded the Indian positions. Attempts to negotiate
a territorial settlement had foundered.

Mao had decided to break the stalemate. He reached far
back into the classical Chinese tradition that he was
otherwise in the process of dismantling. China and India,
Mao told his commanders, had previously fought &#8220;one and
a half&#8221; wars. Beijing could draw operational lessons from
each. The first war had occurred over 1,300 years earlier,
during the Tang Dynasty (618&#8211;907), when China
dispatched troops to support an Indian kingdom against an
illegitimate and aggressive rival. After China&#8217;s intervention,
the two countries had enjoyed centuries of flourishing
religious and economic exchange. The lesson learned from
the ancient campaign, as Mao described it, was that China
and India were not doomed to perpetual enmity. They could
enjoy a long period of peace again, but to do so, China had
to use force to &#8220;knock&#8221; India back &#8220;to the negotiating table.&#8221;
The &#8220;half war,&#8221; in Mao&#8217;s mind, had taken place seven
hundred years later, when the Mongol ruler Timurlane
sacked Delhi. (Mao reasoned that since Mongolia and
China were then part of the same political entity, this was a
&#8220;half&#8221; Sino-Indian war.) Timurlane had won a significant
victory, but once in India his army had killed over 100,000
prisoners. This time, Mao enjoined his Chinese forces to
be &#8220;restrained and principled.&#8221;1

No one in Mao&#8217;s audience&#8212;the Communist Party
leadership of a revolutionary &#8220;New China&#8221; proclaiming its
intent to remake the international order and abolish China&#8217;s
own feudal past&#8212;seems to have questioned the relevance
of these ancient precedents to China&#8217;s current strategic
imperatives. Planning for an attack continued on the basis
of the principles Mao had outlined. Weeks later the
offensive proceeded much as he described: China
executed a sudden, devastating blow on the Indian
positions and then retreated to the previous line of control,
even going so far as to return the captured Indian heavy
weaponry.

In no other country is it conceivable that a modern leader
would initiate a major national undertaking by invoking
strategic principles from a millennium-old event&#8212;nor that
he could confidently expect his colleagues to understand
the significance of his allusions. *Yet China is singular.* No
other country can claim so long a continuous civilization, or
such an intimate link to its ancient past and classical
principles of strategy and statesmanship.

Other societies, the United States included, have
claimed universal applicability for their values and
institutions. Still, none equals China in persisting&#8212;and
persuading its neighbors to acquiesce&#8212;in such an
elevated conception of its world role for so long, and in the
face of so many historical vicissitudes. From the
emergence of China as a unified state in the third century
B.C. until the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1912, China
stood at the center of an East Asian international system of
remarkable durability. The Chinese Emperor was
conceived of (and recognized by most neighboring states)
as the pinnacle of a universal political hierarchy, with all
other states&#8217; rulers theoretically serving as vassals.
*Chinese language, culture, and political institutions were
the hallmarks of civilization, such that even regional rivals
and foreign conquerors adopted them to varying degrees
as a sign of their own legitimacy (often as a first step to
being subsumed within China).*

The traditional cosmology endured despite catastrophes
and centuries-long periods of political decay. Even when
China was weak or divided, its centrality remained the
touchstone of regional legitimacy; *aspirants, both Chinese
and foreign, vied to unify or conquer it, then ruled from the
Chinese capital without challenging the basic premise that
it was the center of the universe.* While other countries were
named after ethnic groups or geographical landmarks,
*China called itself zhongguo&#8212;the &#8220;Middle Kingdom&#8221; or the
&#8220;Central Country.&#8221;* 2 Any attempt to understand China&#8217;s
twentieth-century diplomacy or its twenty-first-century world
role must begin&#8212;even at the cost of some potential
oversimplification&#8212;with a basic appreciation of the
traditional context.

--Henry A. Kissinger
New York, January 2011

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## hoangsa_truongsa_of_VN

China's history is not reliable, because it was too much editing

Your history recorded only a half truth, it never recorded the whole truth

thus on the world, no one read your history, it's too far removed from reality


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## siegecrossbow

^^^ F*CK off, troll!

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## cantonese

In fact, China history were orinated from hundred countries. Among these country, China learnt most from Ancient Vietnam. So we can China history was orinated mainly from Viet's civilization. 
Can anyone can briefly summarize China history more confidently?

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## NmHqh2JbVo

A history of wars and deceptions filled with blood and corpse.
In between, the Chinese found time to create a language which
you need to memorize at least 3000 exotic alphabets just to be able to read newspapers.


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## siegecrossbow

cantonese said:


> In fact, China history were orinated from hundred countries. Among these country, China learnt most from Ancient Vietnam. So we can China history was orinated mainly from Viet's civilization.
> Can anyone can briefly summarize China history more confidently?


 
There was a country called Yelang near where modern Vietnam is. I've always wondered where the people went after the nation was conquered.


----------



## no_name

cantonese said:


> In fact, China history were orinated from hundred countries. Among these country, China learnt most from Ancient Vietnam. So we can China history was orinated mainly from Viet's civilization.
> Can anyone can briefly summarize China history more confidently?


 
Don't make me lol.


----------



## pandarunner

gpit said:


> I just get a copy of Henry Kissinger's <<On China>>. Share with you guys of his Prologue. I boldface some of the core paragraphs. Of these, the most striking one is *"China is singular"*, as statement that I emphasize numerous time.
> 
> Don't impose foreign values onto China, but you can influence it. Chinese value will evolve in its own pace...
> 
> ----------------------------
> 
> *Prologue*
> 
> IN OCTOBER 1962, China&#8217;s revolutionary leader Mao
> Zedong summoned his top military and political
> commanders to meet with him in Beijing. Two thousand
> miles to the west, in the forbidding and sparsely populated
> terrain of the Himalayas, Chinese and Indian troops were
> locked in a standoff over the two countries&#8217; disputed
> border. The dispute arose over different versions of history:
> India claimed the frontier demarcated during British rule,
> China the limits of imperial China. India had deployed its
> outposts to the edge of its conception of the border; China
> had surrounded the Indian positions. Attempts to negotiate
> a territorial settlement had foundered.
> 
> Mao had decided to break the stalemate. He reached far
> back into the classical Chinese tradition that he was
> otherwise in the process of dismantling. China and India,
> Mao told his commanders, had previously fought &#8220;one and
> a half&#8221; wars. Beijing could draw operational lessons from
> each. The first war had occurred over 1,300 years earlier,
> during the Tang Dynasty (618&#8211;907), when China
> dispatched troops to support an Indian kingdom against an
> illegitimate and aggressive rival. After China&#8217;s intervention,
> the two countries had enjoyed centuries of flourishing
> religious and economic exchange. The lesson learned from
> the ancient campaign, as Mao described it, was that China
> and India were not doomed to perpetual enmity. They could
> enjoy a long period of peace again, but to do so, China had
> to use force to &#8220;knock&#8221; India back &#8220;to the negotiating table.&#8221;
> The &#8220;half war,&#8221; in Mao&#8217;s mind, had taken place seven
> hundred years later, when the Mongol ruler Timurlane
> sacked Delhi. (Mao reasoned that since Mongolia and
> China were then part of the same political entity, this was a
> &#8220;half&#8221; Sino-Indian war.) Timurlane had won a significant
> victory, but once in India his army had killed over 100,000
> prisoners. This time, Mao enjoined his Chinese forces to
> be &#8220;restrained and principled.&#8221;1
> 
> No one in Mao&#8217;s audience&#8212;the Communist Party
> leadership of a revolutionary &#8220;New China&#8221; proclaiming its
> intent to remake the international order and abolish China&#8217;s
> own feudal past&#8212;seems to have questioned the relevance
> of these ancient precedents to China&#8217;s current strategic
> imperatives. Planning for an attack continued on the basis
> of the principles Mao had outlined. Weeks later the
> offensive proceeded much as he described: China
> executed a sudden, devastating blow on the Indian
> positions and then retreated to the previous line of control,
> even going so far as to return the captured Indian heavy
> weaponry.
> 
> In no other country is it conceivable that a modern leader
> would initiate a major national undertaking by invoking
> strategic principles from a millennium-old event&#8212;nor that
> he could confidently expect his colleagues to understand
> the significance of his allusions. *Yet China is singular.* No
> other country can claim so long a continuous civilization, or
> such an intimate link to its ancient past and classical
> principles of strategy and statesmanship.
> 
> Other societies, the United States included, have
> claimed universal applicability for their values and
> institutions. Still, none equals China in persisting&#8212;and
> persuading its neighbors to acquiesce&#8212;in such an
> elevated conception of its world role for so long, and in the
> face of so many historical vicissitudes. From the
> emergence of China as a unified state in the third century
> B.C. until the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1912, China
> stood at the center of an East Asian international system of
> remarkable durability. The Chinese Emperor was
> conceived of (and recognized by most neighboring states)
> as the pinnacle of a universal political hierarchy, with all
> other states&#8217; rulers theoretically serving as vassals.
> *Chinese language, culture, and political institutions were
> the hallmarks of civilization, such that even regional rivals
> and foreign conquerors adopted them to varying degrees
> as a sign of their own legitimacy (often as a first step to
> being subsumed within China).*
> 
> The traditional cosmology endured despite catastrophes
> and centuries-long periods of political decay. Even when
> China was weak or divided, its centrality remained the
> touchstone of regional legitimacy; *aspirants, both Chinese
> and foreign, vied to unify or conquer it, then ruled from the
> Chinese capital without challenging the basic premise that
> it was the center of the universe.* While other countries were
> named after ethnic groups or geographical landmarks,
> *China called itself zhongguo&#8212;the &#8220;Middle Kingdom&#8221; or the
> &#8220;Central Country.&#8221;* 2 Any attempt to understand China&#8217;s
> twentieth-century diplomacy or its twenty-first-century world
> role must begin&#8212;even at the cost of some potential
> oversimplification&#8212;with a basic appreciation of the
> traditional context.
> 
> --Henry A. Kissinger
> New York, January 2011


 
I feel like that he is an asskisser.
I prefer traditional Chinese characters.


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## gpit

cantonese said:


> In fact, China history were orinated from hundred countries. Among these country, China learnt most from Ancient Vietnam. So we can China history was orinated mainly from Viet's civilization.
> Can anyone can briefly summarize China history more confidently?


 
Do you have proof that " China learnt most from Ancient Vietnam."?

If so, why didn't you invent your own written language and the Chinese learnt from you, instead you used Chinese characters?

BTW, What are the "hundred countries"? Which recognized history book you recite from?

If you don't have the proof, you are a liar just like the Koreans who said Jesus is a Korean. ... Yeah, why not, Perhaps you should say the world's civilizations were all originated from Vietnam.

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## gpit

siegecrossbow said:


> There was a country called Yelang near where modern Vietnam is. I've always wondered where the people went after the nation was conquered.


 
Very good and interesting question!

I did a simple google and share this with you:


> ...
> 
> Expanse
> 
> Yelang is believed to have been an alliance of tribes covering parts of modern day Guizhou, Hunan, Sichuan and Yunnan.[4]
> [edit] Location
> 
> The ancient Chinese historian Sima Qian described Yelang as west of the Mimo and Dian, south of Qiongdu (in what is now *southern Sichuan*), and *east of* the nomadic Sui[disambiguation needed] and *Kunming*.[5] Some people have identify the seat of the kingdom as Bijie (Chinese: &#27605;&#33410 in today's Liupanshui area, in modern Guizhou province, whilst others suggest the capital moved throughout the region over time.[6]
> 
> Yelang - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia



East of Kunming could potentially be Vietnam. And Southern Shichuan India?


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## pandarunner

gpit said:


> Do you have proof that " China learnt most from Ancient Vietnam."?
> 
> If so, why didn't you invent your own written language and the Chinese learnt from you, instead you used Chinese characters?
> 
> BTW, What are the "hundred countries"? Which recognized history book you recite from?
> 
> If you don't have the proof, you are a liar just like the Koreans who said Jesus is a Korean. ... Yeah, why not, Perhaps you should say the world's civilizations were all originated from Vietnam.


 
I think what he means by "hundred countries" actually is "a hundred Viet /Yue" in Qin dynasty. "A hundred Viet/Yue" was what Qin dynasty called all the tribes in southern China as a whole. The Viets today are descendants of a single tirbe. I dont see any more kinship between Vietnam and the "a hundred Viet/Yue". It is a baseless conclusion that the "a hundred Viet/Yue" turns out to be Vietnam.


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## no_name

The hundreds yue are different from the vietnam today. Infact the name vietnam itself means 'south of yue'


----------



## bigest

People have no passion to discuss this issue?


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## siegecrossbow

bigest said:


> People have no passion to discuss this issue?


 
We used to have passion for it until the trolls popped up. After that we directed our passion against them.


----------



## Gold1010

Chinese history i like include three kingdoms period and Kublai Khan.

Oh and when the Mongols invaded.

Lu Bu !


----------



## gpit

pandarunner said:


> I think what he means by "hundred countries" actually is "a hundred Viet /Yue" in Qin dynasty. "A hundred Viet/Yue" was what Qin dynasty called all the tribes in southern China as a whole. The Viets today are descendants of a single tirbe. I dont see any more kinship between Vietnam and the "a hundred Viet/Yue". It is a baseless conclusion that the "a hundred Viet/Yue" turns out to be Vietnam.


 
It could be.

In, around or even later than Qin, South was a generally very uncivilized area compared with the Middle Land. The South only possessed preliminary technologies such as planting rice in paddy fields, etc. 

&#21335;&#34542;means "Southern Barbarians". That's what it was.

I tend to believe that today's Vietnam might be formed from a couple of ancient "Hundred Viets". Maybe.


----------



## gpit

no_name said:


> The hundreds yue are different from the vietnam today. Infact the name vietnam itself means 'south of yue'


 
Do you mean today's Viet Nam is "South of Hundred Yue"?

Viet Nam could also mean Yue in the South.

About Yue, here is another story:

*&#36234;&#22269;*
&#21476;&#22269;&#21517;&#65292;&#22994;&#22995;&#12290;&#30456;&#20256;&#22987;&#31062;&#26159;&#22799;&#20195;&#23569;&#24247;&#24246;&#23376;&#26080;&#20313;&#65292;&#30001;&#27993;&#27743;&#30340;&#21407;&#22987;&#23621;&#27665;&#36234;&#26063;&#24314;&#31435;&#65292;&#20854;&#26680;&#24515;&#22312;&#32461;&#20852;&#20250;&#31293;&#23665;&#12290;






If you look at Dai Viet map posted by some hilarious Viet friends recently, you'll see it covers this Yue State.


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## no_name

There could be an overlap of people in those regions. Viet ancestors includes Qin soldiers, sent by Qin Shi Huang to maintain order in newly conquered territories. When Qin dynasty collapsed, the general in charge of viet territory decided to make himself king and his troop choosed to stay where they are instead of returning north. The new king of vietnam made a deal with the first emperor of Han dynasty to be an independent tributary, at least at the start.


----------



## pandarunner

Aussie4ever said:


> Chinese history i like include three kingdoms period and Kublai Khan.
> 
> Oh and when the Mongols invaded.
> 
> Lu Bu !


 
In ancient times the Chinese army is quiet defenseless facing the knights from north.


----------



## Star&#8730;ation

Vietnamese today are successors of the remnants of those called "Hundred Yue". In ancient time when the Han's civilization spread out from the Yellow delta to the Yangtze delta and southward, those "Hundred Yue" people live in the Southern of Yangtze river have been defeated one by one. Part of them still lived in and integrated into Chinese, the rest moved to the South of today Vietnam.

But the "Yue kingdom" in the Warring Stated period got nothing to do with Vietnamese.

"Vietnam" does mean: "country of the Viet people in the South"

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## rcrmj

Star&#8730;ation;1892504 said:


> Vietnamese today are successors of the remnants of those called "Hundred Yue". In ancient time when the Han's civilization spread out from the Yellow delta to the Yangtze delta and southward, those "Hundred Yue" people live in the Southern of Yangtze river have been defeated one by one. Part of them still lived in and integrated into Chinese, the rest moved to the South of today Vietnam.
> 
> But the "Yue kingdom" in the Warring Stated period got nothing to do with Vietnamese.
> 
> "Vietnam" does mean: "country of the Viet people in the South"


 
pure nonsense``modern vietnam has nothing to do with ancient chinese 'bai yue' people, 

a han chinese name Zhao Tuo went to modern northern vietnam and created Vietnam, and Vietnam in Chinese means a land south to the Yue (not country of the Viet people in the South, thats a chinese language drop out interpretation)

because lack of their own history so vietnam had to steal the chinese terminology of 'yue'='viet' to boost its own subjective history.

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## pandarunner

Star&#8730;ation;1892504 said:


> But the "Yue kingdom" in the Warring Stated period got nothing to do with Vietnamese.
> 
> "Vietnam" does mean: "country of the Viet people in the South"


 
I dont think so, Vietnam is basically a geographical term while Viet and Vietnamese are sociological ones, so "country of the Viet people in the South" does not mean "Yue/Viet kingdom" got nothing to do with Vietnamese.
I have read The Ancient History of Vietnam by Dao Duy Anh, the remnants of "Yue/Viet Kingdom" fled to and scattered southern of Yangtze River. After the migration and civilization there is the term "Hundred Yue". 
LuoYue as the ancestor of Vietnamese are probably some remnants of "Yue/Viet Kingdom", those lived in China either intergrated into Han Chiese or stayed autonomously in remote areas as Zhuang Chinese did. BTW, the Zhuang Chinese maintain their religion pretty well.

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## pandarunner

rcrmj said:


> pure nonsense``modern vietnam has nothing to do with ancient chinese 'bai yue' people,
> 
> a han chinese name Zhao Tuo went to modern northern vietnam and created Vietnam, and Vietnam in Chinese means a land south to the Yue (not country of the Viet people in the South, thats a chinese language drop out interpretation)
> 
> because lack of their own history so vietnam had to steal the chinese terminology of 'yue'='viet' to boost its own subjective history.



Vietnam today is one of the "Hundred Yue/Viet", this is the something to do with, acient LuoYue people and Zhuang Chinese owns the broze drum culture.

Viet Nam and Nam Viet are totally different in Chinese, just like Africa and South Africa.

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## rcrmj

pandarunner said:


> Vietnam today is one of the "Hundred Yue/Viet", this is the something to do with, acient LuoYue people and Zhuang Chinese owns the broze drum culture.
> 
> Viet Nam and Nam Viet are totally different in Chinese, just like Africa and South Africa.


 
thats why those vietnam i said they were talking nonsense about vietnam is the authentic desendants of ancient 'bai yue'```they need to steal some chinese culture/identity to boost their pony history`

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## ChineseTiger1986

The modern Vietnamese is the descendant of Luo Yue, but their ancestors never once lived within the territory of the modern China.

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## gpit

ChineseTiger1986 said:


> The modern Vietnamese is the descendant of Luo Yue, but their ancestors never once lived within the territory of the modern China.


 
I beg to differ completely the second part: "but...".

There are many research works. Let me just quote this blog. I think it may not be 100% accurate, but is mostly what we know so far. It's pretty long, but I enjoy spending time on it. 



> *&#38610;&#36234;&#26159;&#20010;&#20255;&#22823;&#30340;&#27665;&#26063;* ?????????_???_????
> 
> &#31532;&#19968;&#33410; &#30334;&#36234;&#37322;&#20041;
> 
> &#26063;&#31216;&#65292;&#26159;&#30740;&#31350;&#19968;&#20010;&#27665;&#26063;&#30340;&#39318;&#35201;&#38382;&#39064;&#12290;&#23545;&#26063;&#31216;&#30340;&#19981;&#21516;&#29702;&#35299;&#65292;&#23545;&#20854;&#21382;&#21490;&#21644;&#25991;&#21270;&#30340;&#30740;&#31350;&#65292;&#23558;&#20250;&#24471;&#20986;&#19981;&#21516;&#20035;&#33267;&#25130;&#28982;&#30456;&#21453;&#30340;&#32467;&#35770;&#12290;
> 
> *&#38610;&#36234;*&#65292;&#20316;&#20026;&#26063;&#31216;&#65292;&#21490;&#21069;&#23601;&#24050;&#32463;&#23384;&#22312;&#12290;&#26149;&#31179;&#25112;&#22269;&#20043;&#21069;&#65292;&#32479;&#31216;&#20026;&#38610;&#36234;&#25110;&#8220;&#20110;&#36234;&#8221;&#12290;&#20844;&#20803;&#21069;333&#24180;&#65292;&#26970;&#28781;&#36234;&#21518;&#65292;&#36234;&#20197;&#27492;&#25955;&#65292;&#36234;&#22269;&#29579;&#23460;&#30340;&#19968;&#20123;&#25104;&#21592;&#21450;&#37096;&#33853;&#39318;&#39046;&#65292;&#21508;&#33258;&#29575;&#37096;&#25955;&#23621;&#19996;&#21335;&#27839;&#28023;&#12289;&#35199;&#21335;&#23665;&#21306;&#65292;&#20110;&#26159;&#20986;&#29616;&#20102;&#35768;&#22810;&#37096;&#33853;&#19982;&#22269;&#23478;&#65292;&#24418;&#25104;&#8220;&#25196;&#27721;&#20043;&#21335;&#65292;&#30334;&#36234;&#20043;&#38469;&#8221;&#30340;&#23616;&#38754;&#65288;&#12298;&#21525;&#27663;&#26149;&#31179;.&#24643;&#21531;&#31687;&#12299;&#65289;&#12290; (_Note by gpit: "&#20844;&#20803;&#21069;333&#24180;&#65292;&#26970;&#28781;&#36234;&#21518;" this Yue is the Yue kingdom of Warring States that was in today's Zhejiang province, which annihilated Wu Kingdom in Jiangsu province via &#21351;&#34218;&#23581;&#32966;, etc. _  For &#26970;&#28781;&#36234;, see http://www.dfzb.suzhou.gov.cn/dfwh/195525.htm).
> 
> &#22312;&#35832;&#22810;&#30340;&#21382;&#21490;&#23398;&#12289;&#27665;&#26063;&#23398;&#20856;&#31821;&#20013;&#65292;&#23545;&#8220;&#30334;&#36234;&#8221;&#26377;&#35768;&#22810;&#19981;&#21516;&#30340;&#31216;&#35859;&#65292;&#24120;&#35265;&#30340;&#26377;&#65306;&#38610;&#36234;&#65288;&#39558;&#36234;&#65289;&#12289;&#20110;&#36234;&#12289;&#25196;&#36234;&#12289;&#28654;&#36234;&#12289;&#33606;&#36234;&#12289;&#29935;&#36234;&#12289;&#21556;&#36234;&#12289;&#38397;&#36234;&#12289;&#36195;&#36234;&#12289;&#28359;&#36234;&#12289;&#19996;&#40343;&#36234;&#12289;&#22839;&#36234;&#12289;&#21335;&#36234;&#12289;&#19996;&#36234;&#12289;&#24052;&#36234;&#12289;&#22804;&#36234;&#31561;&#12290;&#23545;&#36234;&#20154;&#30340;&#31216;&#35859;&#26377;&#65306;&#22839;&#20154;&#12289;&#38610;&#27665;&#12289;&#26356;&#27665;&#12289;&#33606;&#27665;&#12289;&#40654;&#27665;&#12289;&#33495;&#27665;&#12289;&#28654;&#20154;&#12289;&#24248;&#20154;&#12289;&#20698;&#20154;&#12289;&#20442;&#20154;&#12289;&#26086;&#20154;&#12289;&#20278;&#20154;&#31561;&#65292;&#36825;&#20123;&#31216;&#35859;&#32536;&#20309;&#32780;&#29983;&#65311;&#21547;&#20041;&#22914;&#20309;&#65311;&#26377;&#20309;&#30456;&#24178;&#65311;&#20854;&#20013;&#21738;&#20010;&#31216;&#35859;&#26159;&#30334;&#36234;&#27665;&#26063;&#30340;&#26063;&#31216;&#65311;&#31508;&#32773;&#25311;&#20174;&#20154;&#31867;&#23398;&#12289;&#21382;&#21490;&#23398;&#12289;&#27665;&#26063;&#23398;&#12289;&#27665;&#20439;&#23398;&#12289;&#35821;&#35328;&#23398;&#30340;&#35282;&#24230;&#21644;&#26448;&#26009;&#36827;&#34892;&#35808;&#37322;&#65292;&#24182;&#37325;&#28857;&#23545;&#8220;&#22839;&#36234;&#8221;&#12289;&#8220;&#38610;&#36234;&#8221;&#12289; &#8220;&#28654;&#36234; &#8221;&#8220;&#26356;&#36234;&#8221;&#65288;&#20170;&#20375;&#26063;&#65289;&#36827;&#34892;&#30740;&#31350;&#12290;
> 
> 
> 
> &#25196;&#36234;&#65292;&#20063;&#31216;&#8220;&#25196;&#31908;&#8221;&#12290;&#25196;&#24030;&#26159;&#21476;&#20061;&#24030;&#20043;&#19968;&#12290;&#12298;&#23572;&#31258;.&#37322;&#22320;&#12299;&#35828;&#65306;&#8220;&#27743;&#21335;&#26352;&#25196;&#24030;&#12290;&#8221;&#20170;&#27743;&#33487;&#12289;&#23433;&#24509;&#12289;&#27993;&#27743;&#12289;&#31119;&#24314;&#12289;&#27743;&#35199;&#12289;&#28246;&#21335;&#30342;&#21476;&#25196;&#24030;&#20043;&#23646;&#12290;&#21476;&#25196;&#24030;&#20043;&#22320;&#20026;&#36234;&#20154;&#25152;&#23621;&#65292;&#25925;&#26352;&#25196;&#36234;&#12290;&#36234;&#22269;&#20129;&#21518;&#65292;&#37096;&#20998;&#25196;&#36234;&#20154;&#31163;&#24320;&#20250;&#31293;&#36825;&#20010;&#36234;&#22269;&#30340;&#25919;&#27835;&#20013;&#24515;&#65292;&#36801;&#23621;&#27721;&#27700;&#12289;&#28248;&#27743;&#12289;&#27781;&#27743;&#12289;&#36164;&#27743;&#12289;&#28583;&#27700;&#12289;&#36195;&#27743;&#27969;&#22495;&#12290;&#19982;&#21407;&#23621;&#22312;&#36825;&#37324;&#30340;&#36234;&#20154;&#8220;&#33606;&#34542;&#8221;&#34701;&#21512;&#65292;&#25104;&#20026;&#33606;&#26970;&#20043;&#22320;&#30340;&#20027;&#20307;&#27665;&#26063;&#65292;&#8220;&#33606;&#34542;&#8221;&#19968;&#21517;&#36880;&#28176;&#21462;&#20195;&#20102;&#25196;&#36234;&#20043;&#31216;&#12290;
> 
> 
> 
> &#21556;&#36234;&#12290; &#21608;&#21021;&#65292;&#21476;&#20844;&#39076;&#29238;&#65288;&#22826;&#29579;&#65289;&#38271;&#23376;&#21556;&#22826;&#20271;&#23621;&#20170;&#27743;&#33487;&#26080;&#38177;&#26757;&#37324;&#65292;&#33267;&#21313;&#20061;&#19990;&#23385;&#23551;&#26790;&#22987;&#20852;&#30427;&#31216;&#29579;&#12290;&#26149;&#31179;&#26102;&#26399;&#20256;&#33267;&#22827;&#24046;&#65292;&#24314;&#37117;&#21556;&#21439;&#65288;&#20170;&#33487;&#24030;&#24066;&#65289;&#65292;&#21518;&#22240;&#27743;&#33487;&#31616;&#31216;&#20026;&#21556;&#12290;
> 
> &#21556;&#36234;&#65292;&#19968;&#25351;&#21556;&#22269;&#65292;&#20108;&#25351;&#21556;&#22320;&#20043;&#36234;&#20154;&#12290;&#21556;&#22269;&#21644;&#36234;&#22269;&#20043;&#27665;&#37117;&#26159;&#30334;&#36234;&#27665;&#26063;&#65292;&#21382;&#21490;&#19978;&#21556;&#36234;&#24182;&#31216;&#65292;&#25454;&#12298;&#21490;&#35760;&#12299;&#35760;&#36733;&#26149;&#31179;&#26102;&#26399;&#30340;&#21556;&#22269;&#8220;&#33258;&#21495;&#21246;&#21556;&#8221;&#65292;&#21246;&#19982;&#29935;&#12289;&#21556;&#19982;&#38610;&#38899;&#36817;&#65292;&#21487;&#33021;&#26159;&#30334;&#36234;&#25903;&#31995;&#8220;&#29935;&#38610;&#8221;&#30340;&#19981;&#21516;&#35793;&#38899;&#12290;&#20294;&#20004;&#22269;&#20114;&#30456;&#25932;&#23545;&#65292;&#20114;&#21160;&#24178;&#25096;&#12290;&#26149;&#31179;&#26102;&#65292;&#36234;&#29579;&#21246;&#36341;&#36133;&#20110;&#21556;&#29579;&#22827;&#24046;&#20110;&#20250;&#31293;&#65288;&#20170;&#32461;&#20852;&#24066;&#65289;&#12290;&#20026;&#20351;&#21556;&#29579;&#36864;&#20853;&#65292;&#21246;&#36341;&#21629;&#33539;&#34849;&#27714;&#24471;&#36234;&#22899;&#35199;&#26045;&#36827;&#20110;&#21556;&#29579;&#65292;&#21556;&#29579;&#35768;&#21644;&#12290;&#21246;&#36341;&#29983;&#32858;&#25945;&#35757;&#65292;&#21351;&#34218;&#23581;&#32966;&#65292;&#21457;&#24868;&#22270;&#24378;&#65292;&#21040;&#26149;&#31179;&#26410;&#26411;&#24180;&#65288;&#21363;&#20844;&#20803;&#21069;473&#24180;&#65289;&#32456;&#24471;&#28781;&#21556;&#12290;
> 
> 
> 
> &#38397;&#36234;&#12290;&#21476;&#20195;&#23621;&#20303;&#22312;&#20170;&#31119;&#24314;&#21644;&#27993;&#27743;&#22659;&#20869;&#30340;&#38397;&#20154;&#65292;&#22240;&#20998;&#19971;&#26063;&#65292;&#25925;&#26377;&#19971;&#38397;&#20043;&#31216;&#65292;&#21518;
> 
> &#22240;&#31616;&#31216;&#31119;&#24314;&#20026;&#38397;&#12290;
> 
> &#20309;&#20026;&#8220;&#38397;&#20154;&#8221;&#65311;&#12298;&#21608;&#31036;.&#22799;&#23448;.&#32844;&#26041;&#27663;&#12299;&#35828;&#65306;&#8220;&#36776;&#20854;&#37030;&#22269;&#12289;&#37117;&#12289;&#37145;&#12289;&#22235;&#22839;&#12289;&#20843;&#34542;&#12289;&#19971;&#38397;&#12289;&#20061;&#35977;&#12289;&#20116;&#25102;&#12289;&#20845;&#29380;&#20043;&#27665;&#12290;&#8221;&#36825;&#37324;&#30340;&#8220;&#22235;&#22839;&#8221;&#12289;&#8220;&#20843;&#34542;&#8221;&#12289;&#8220;&#19971;&#38397;&#8221;&#12289;&#8220;&#20061;&#35977;&#8221;&#31561;&#37117;&#26159;&#23545;&#30334;&#36234;&#35832;&#26063;&#30340;&#37145;&#34180;&#20043;&#31216;&#12290;&#35768;&#24910;&#12298;&#35828;&#25991;&#35299;&#23383;&#12299;&#27880;&#65306;&#8220;&#38397;&#65292;&#19996;&#21335;&#36234;&#65292;&#36234;&#22839;&#34542;&#20043;&#22269;&#20063;&#12290;&#8221;&#21448;&#35828;&#65306;&#8220;&#21335;&#26041;&#26352;&#34542;&#65292;&#38397;&#34542;&#20043;&#21035;&#20063;&#12290;&#8221;&#65292;&#24182;&#23558;&#8220;&#38397;&#8221;&#23383;&#30340;&#37096;&#39318;&#21015;&#20837;&#8220;&#34411;&#8221;&#23383;&#37096;&#12290;&#21487;&#35265;&#65292;&#38397;&#65292;&#23601;&#26159;&#34542;&#65292;&#19971;&#38397;&#23601;&#26159;&#19971;&#34542;&#12290;&#38397;&#36234;&#21448;&#31216;&#19996;&#36234;&#12290;&#12298;&#21490;&#35760;.&#19996;&#36234;&#21015;&#20256;&#12299;&#20013;&#35828;&#65306;&#8220;&#19996;&#36234;&#20154;&#29467;&#24717;&#8221;&#12290;&#20063;&#21547;&#34542;&#20043;&#24847;&#12290;&#38397;&#36234;&#20998;&#37096;&#39047;&#24191;&#65292;&#31206;&#27721;&#26102;&#65292;&#8220;&#19996;&#21450;&#20170;&#21488;&#28286;&#12289;&#28558;&#28246;&#35832;&#23707;&#65292;&#35199;&#21017;&#23041;&#21147;&#25152;&#23624;&#20197;&#30452;&#36798;&#20110;&#36195;&#19996;&#21271;&#31561;&#22320;&#12290;&#8221;&#65288;&#35265;&#32599;&#39321;&#26519;&#12298;&#21476;&#20195;&#30334;&#36234;&#20998;&#24067;&#32771;.&#38397;&#36234;&#12299;&#65289;&#12290;
> 
> &#38397;&#36234;&#20154;&#26159;&#21335;&#34542;&#21271;&#19978;&#32780;&#23450;&#23621;&#38397;&#22320;&#30340;&#22303;&#30528;&#27665;&#26063;&#12290;&#20844;&#20803;&#21069;334&#24180;&#65292;&#36234;&#29579;&#26080;&#30086;&#34987;&#26970;&#23041;&#29579;&#25171;&#36133;&#21518;&#65292;&#26080;&#30086;&#30340;&#20799;&#23376;&#29577;&#29575;&#39046;&#19968;&#25903;&#33337;&#38431;&#20174;&#28023;&#19978;&#21335;&#19979;&#36827;&#20837;&#38397;&#36234;&#20043;&#22320;&#65292;&#38543;&#21518;&#21448;&#38470;&#32493;&#36801;&#20837;&#35768;&#22810;&#38610;&#36234;&#31227;&#27665;&#12290;&#36825;&#20123;&#21516;&#23447;&#21516;&#31062;&#30340;&#36234;&#20154;&#34701;&#20026;&#19968;&#20307;&#65292;&#29577;&#25104;&#20102;&#38397;&#36234;&#20154;&#30340;&#22836;&#39046;&#65292;&#20256;&#33267;&#26080;&#35832;&#21495;&#22269;&#31435;&#29579;&#65292;&#24314;&#31435;&#20102;&#38397;&#36234;&#22269;&#65292;&#33258;&#23553;&#38397;&#36234;&#29579;&#12290;&#26080;&#35832;&#26377;&#22797;&#20852;&#36234;&#22269;&#30340;&#24378;&#28872;&#27442;&#26395;&#65292;&#20182;&#27493;&#21246;&#36341;&#8220;&#21351;&#34218;&#23581;&#32966;&#8221;&#20043;&#20030;&#65292;&#26500;&#31569;&#19996;&#20918;&#37117;&#22478;&#65292;&#21152;&#24378;&#21335;&#21271;&#20891;&#20107;&#24037;&#20107;&#65292;&#21457;&#23637;&#32463;&#27982;&#65292;&#25171;&#36896;&#25112;&#33337;&#65292;&#24456;&#24555;&#22686;&#24378;&#20102;&#23454;&#21147;&#12290;&#20844;&#20803;&#21069;138&#24180;&#65292;&#31532;&#19977;&#20195;&#38397;&#36234;&#29579;&#37090;&#20986;&#20110;&#25193;&#24352;&#39046;&#22320;&#21644;&#21183;&#21147;&#30340;&#38656;&#35201;&#65292;&#20030;&#20853;&#22260;&#25915;&#19996;&#29935;&#65292;&#27721;&#27494;&#24093;&#20986;&#20853;&#25937;&#25588;&#19996;&#29935;&#12290;&#20844;&#20803;&#21069;135&#24180;&#65292;&#37090;&#21448;&#20056;&#21335;&#36234;&#29579;&#36213;&#20311;&#30149;&#27521;&#65292;&#21457;&#20853;&#25915;&#20987;&#21335;&#36234;&#12290;&#36825;&#20004;&#27425;&#20030;&#21160;&#24341;&#36215;&#20102;&#27721;&#27494;&#24093;&#30340;&#35686;&#35273;&#65292;&#36963;&#29579;&#24674;&#21644;&#38889;&#23433;&#22269;&#20174;&#21335;&#26124;&#21644;&#32461;&#20852;&#20986;&#21457;&#65292;&#20853;&#20998;&#20004;&#36335;&#22841;&#25915;&#38397;&#36234;&#22269;&#12290;&#20026;&#20445;&#38397;&#36234;&#22269;&#23436;&#25972;&#26080;&#25439;&#65292;&#37090;&#30340;&#24351;&#24351;&#20313;&#21892;&#35828;&#26381;&#20247;&#33251;&#65292;&#36930;&#26432;&#37090;&#12290;&#27721;&#27494;&#24093;&#23553;&#20313;&#21892;&#20026;&#38397;&#36234;&#29579;&#12290;&#20313;&#21892;&#35980;&#21512;&#31070;&#31163;&#65292;&#21453;&#27721;&#22797;&#22269;&#20043;&#24515;&#19981;&#27515;&#12290;&#20313;&#21892;&#19981;&#38500;&#26159;&#21518;&#24739;&#12290;&#20844;&#20803;&#21069;119&#24180;&#65292;&#27721;
> 
> &#27494;&#24093;&#20877;&#27425;&#21457;&#21160;&#28781;&#38397;&#20043;&#25112;&#65292;&#20853;&#20998;&#22235;&#36335;&#65292;&#38470;&#28023;&#21516;&#26102;&#36827;&#25915;&#65292;&#38397;&#36234;&#22269;&#32456;&#24402;&#20110;&#27721;&#12290;
> 
> 
> 
> &#21335;&#36234;&#12290;&#20013;&#22269;&#21382;&#21490;&#19978;&#26377;&#8220;&#21271;&#32993;&#21335;&#36234;&#8221;&#20043;&#35828;&#12290;&#21335;&#36234;&#26159;&#23545;&#20013;&#22269;&#21476;&#20195;&#21335;&#26041;&#36234;&#20154;&#30340;&#24635;&#31216;&#12290;&#36825;&#37324;&#25152;&#35828;&#30340;&#21335;&#36234;&#65292;&#26159;&#25351;&#21476;&#20195;&#23621;&#20303;&#22312;&#24191;&#19996;&#12289;&#24191;&#35199;&#12289;&#36149;&#24030;&#12289;&#20113;&#21335;&#12289;&#28246;&#21335;&#12289;*&#36234;&#21335;&#30340;&#36234;&#20154;*&#12290;&#12298;&#21490;&#35760;&#12299;&#20889;&#20316;&#8220;&#21335;&#36234;&#8221;&#12289;&#8220;&#21335;&#22839;&#8221;&#12290;&#12298;&#27721;&#20070;&#12299;&#20889;&#20316;&#8220;&#21335;&#31908;&#8221;&#65292;&#20854;&#24847;&#30456;&#21516;&#65292;&#21518;&#22240;&#27492;&#31616;&#31216;&#24191;&#19996;&#20026;&#31908;&#12290;
> 
> &#22312;&#21335;&#36234;&#20154;&#32676;&#20013;&#65292;&#26377;&#38610;&#36234;&#65288;&#39558;&#36234;&#65289;&#12289;&#29935;&#36234;&#31561;&#35832;&#26063;&#12290;&#36825;&#20123;&#33258;&#21476;&#20197;&#26469;&#23601;&#29983;&#27963;&#22312;&#36825;&#37324;&#30340;&#22303;&#33997;&#27665;&#26063;&#65292;&#21518;&#26469;&#28436;&#21270;&#20026;&#29616;&#22312;&#30340;&#22766;&#26063;&#12289;&#20375;&#26063;&#12289;&#40654;&#26063;&#12289;&#33495;&#26063;&#12289;&#29814;&#26063;&#12289;&#20312;&#26063;&#12289;&#27700;&#26063;&#12289;&#20203;&#20332;&#26063;&#12289;&#24067;&#20381;&#26063;&#31561;&#26063;&#31867;&#12290;
> 
> 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> 
> &#26397;&#30456;&#23545;&#31435;&#12290;&#20844;&#20803;&#21069;112&#24180;&#65292;&#27721;&#27494;&#24093;&#35843;&#36963;10&#19975;&#22823;&#20891;&#36827;&#25915;&#21335;&#36234;&#65292;&#32463;&#36807;&#19968;&#24180;&#22810;&#30340;&#28608;&#25112;&#65292;&#32456;
> 
> &#20110;&#25915;&#30772;&#21335;&#36234;&#22269;&#37117;&#22478;&#30058;&#31162;&#30340;&#22478;&#21271;&#30707;&#38376;&#65292;&#24179;&#23450;&#20102;&#21335;&#36234;&#22269;&#12290;&#20043;&#21518;&#65292;&#27721;&#27494;&#24093;&#23558;&#21407;&#26469;&#30340;&#21335;&#36234;&#22269;
> 
> &#23646;&#22320;&#35774;&#32622;&#20102;&#21335;&#28023;&#12289;&#33485;&#26791;&#12289;&#37057;&#26519;&#12289;&#21512;&#28006;&#12289;&#20132;&#36286;&#12289;&#20061;&#30495;&#12289;&#26085;&#21335;&#12289;&#29664;&#23830;&#12289;&#20747;&#32819;&#20061;&#20010;&#37089;&#12290;&#22312;&#31206;&#36234;&#25112;&#20105;&#20013;&#65292;&#21335;&#26041;&#21508;&#22320;&#30340;&#38610;&#36234;&#20154;&#32439;&#32439;&#36867;&#36801;&#21040;&#27494;&#38517;&#37089;&#30340;&#38241;&#25104;&#21439;&#22320;&#21644;&#26690;&#26519;&#37089;&#30340;&#34701;&#24030;&#21439;&#22320;&#65292;&#19982;&#22303;&#30528;&#30340;&#38610;&#36234;&#20154;&#34701;&#20026;&#19968;&#20307;&#65292;&#24418;&#25104;&#20102;&#28248;&#12289;&#26690;&#12289;&#40660;&#36793;&#21306;&#8220;&#19981;&#26381;&#29579;&#21270;&#8221;&#30340;&#29420;&#31435;&#29579;&#22269;&#12290;
> 
> 
> 
> &#19996;&#40343;&#36234;&#12290;&#21490;&#31216;&#27743;&#12289;&#27993;&#19968;&#24102;&#20026;&#20869;&#36234;&#65292;&#24191;&#19996;&#12289;&#24191;&#35199;&#12289;&#31119;&#24314;&#12289;&#28023;&#21335;&#12289;&#21488;&#28286;&#12289;&#39321;&#28207;&#12289;&#24429;&#28246;&#35832;&#23707;&#20026;&#22806;&#36234;&#65288;&#35265;&#12298;&#36234;&#32477;&#20070;&#12299;&#21367;&#20108;&#21367;&#20843;&#65289;&#12290;&#12298;&#27721;&#20070;.&#22320;&#29702;&#24535;.&#19979;.&#21556;&#22320;&#12299;&#35760;&#36733;&#65306;&#8220;&#20250;&#31293;&#28023;&#22806;&#26377;&#19996;&#40343;&#20154;&#65292;&#20998;&#20108;&#21313;&#20313;&#22269;&#65292;&#20197;&#23681;&#26102;&#26469;&#29486;&#35265;&#20113;&#12290;&#8221;&#12290;&#8220;&#28023;&#22806;&#23621;&#20303;&#30340;&#30093;&#20154;&#65292;&#20998;&#24067;&#22312;&#28598;&#24030;&#21644;&#22839;&#24030;&#31561;&#28023;&#23707;&#19978;&#65292;&#20854;&#31216;&#20026;&#19996;&#40343;&#20154;&#12290;&#8221;&#65288;&#32599;&#39321;&#26519;&#12298;&#21776;&#20195;&#30093;&#20154;&#32771;&#12299;&#19978;&#31687;&#65289;&#12290;&#28023;&#22806;&#25351;&#30340;&#26159;&#22806;&#36234;&#22320;&#21306;&#65292;&#30830;&#20999;&#22320;&#35828;&#26159;&#25351;&#31119;&#24314;&#12289;&#24191;&#19996;&#12289;&#27993;&#27743;&#12289;&#24191;&#35199;&#27839;&#28023;&#35832;&#23707;&#12290;&#19996;&#40343;&#20154;&#26159;&#27700;&#19978;&#20154;&#23478;&#65292;&#20197;&#28180;&#20026;&#19994;&#65292;&#24120;&#23621;&#33311;&#20013;&#65292;&#28418;&#27850;&#29983;&#28079;&#12290;&#31508;&#32773;&#22312;2OO8&#24180;10&#26376;&#21040;&#28023;&#21335;&#26053;&#28216;&#65292;&#21457;&#29616;&#19977;&#20122;&#29492;&#23707;&#19979;&#30340;&#28023;&#28286; &#37324;&#26377;&#19968;&#20010;&#38750;&#24120;&#22766;&#35266;&#30340;&#8220;&#28023;&#19978;&#33311;&#22478;&#8221;&#65292;&#22478;&#24066;&#21151;&#33021;&#40784;&#20840;&#65292;&#8220;&#22823;&#34903;&#8221;&#12289;&#8220;&#23567;&#24055;&#8221;&#25972;&#40784;&#26377;&#24207;&#12290;&#8220;&#27004;&#21488;&#8221;&#24314;&#31569;&#26633;&#27425;&#40158;&#27604;&#65292;&#22478;&#37324;&#20303;&#30340;&#37117;&#26159;&#21476;&#20195;&#30093;&#27665;&#65292;&#29616;&#22312;&#31216;&#40654;&#26063;&#12290;&#23545;&#30093;&#20154;&#65288;&#20063;&#20889;&#20316;&#34577;&#12289;&#26086;&#65289;&#30340;&#27969;&#28304;&#65292;&#21490;&#23398;&#30028;&#12289;&#27665;&#26063;&#23398;&#30028;&#26377;&#19981;&#21516;&#35266;&#28857;&#65292;&#26377;&#30340;&#35828;&#21476;&#21335;&#36234;&#35821;&#31216;&#33351;&#20026;&#8220;&#30093;&#8221;&#65292;&#30093;&#26159;&#33351;&#30340;&#38899;&#35793;&#12290;&#24191;&#24030;&#24066;&#28392;&#27743;&#34903;&#25991;&#21270;&#31449;&#38271;&#35874;&#26851;&#33521;&#35748;&#20026;&#65306;&#30093;&#21487;&#33021;&#26159;&#25112;&#20105;&#30340;&#36133;&#33853;&#32773;&#36867;&#21040;&#28023;&#23707;&#19978;&#36991;&#38590;&#30340;&#36234;&#20154;&#12290;&#36825;&#20010;&#35266;&#28857;&#26159;&#21487;&#21462;&#30340;&#12290;&#20844;&#20803;&#21069;333&#24180;&#30340;&#26970;&#36234;&#20043;&#25112;&#21644;&#20844;&#20803;&#21069;223&#24180;&#30340;&#31206;&#36234;&#20043;&#25112;&#65292;&#22343;&#26377;&#35768;&#22810;&#36234;&#27665;&#20174;&#20869;&#22320;&#36867;&#21040;&#8220;&#28023;&#22806;&#8221;&#36991;&#38590;&#12290;&#20026;&#27492;&#65292;&#26970;&#12289;&#31206;&#29579;&#26397;&#22343;&#37319;&#21462;&#8220;&#31105;&#28023;&#8221;&#25919;&#31574;&#65292;&#38450;&#27490;&#36234;&#20154;&#22806;&#36867;&#12290;&#21516;&#26102;&#36824;&#37319;&#21462;&#8220;&#24473;&#27665;&#8221;&#25919;&#31574;&#65292;&#23558;&#27839;&#28023;&#20043;&#36234;&#20154;&#36801;&#21040;&#27743;&#28142;&#22320;&#21306;&#21152;&#20197;&#25511;&#21046;&#12290;&#26149;&#31179;&#26102;&#26399;&#65292;&#33606;&#26970;&#20043;&#22320;&#26377;&#8220;&#20278;&#20154;&#8221;&#12289;&#8220;&#20193;&#35239;&#8221;&#20154;&#65288;&#20063;&#20889;&#20316;&#25954;&#12289;&#27012;&#65289;&#65292;&#8220;&#30093;&#8221;&#19982;&#8220;&#35272;&#8221;&#35856;&#38899;&#65292;&#8220;&#30093;&#20154;&#8221;&#21487;&#33021;&#26159;&#20174;&#33606;&#26970;&#20043;&#22320;&#36867;&#24448;&#27839;&#28023;&#35832;&#23707;&#19978;&#36530;&#36991;&#25112;&#31096;&#30340;&#8220;&#20193;&#35272;&#20154;&#8221;&#12290;
> 
> &#19996;&#40343;&#21407;&#20889;&#20316;&#8220;&#19996;&#39927;&#8221;&#65292;&#8220;&#40128;&#8221;&#23383;&#21487;&#33021;&#26159;&#8220;&#40343;&#8221;&#23383;&#30340;&#35823;&#20889;&#12290;&#8220;&#40128;&#8221;&#23383;&#65292;&#29616;&#22312;&#27721;&#35821;&#35299;&#37322;&#20026;&#26159;&#31181;&#38271;&#19977;&#23544;&#21040;&#22235;&#23544;&#65292;&#20391;&#34649;&#65292;&#33145;&#37096;&#21576;&#22253;&#26609;&#24418;&#65292;&#30524;&#21475;&#37096;&#22823;&#30340;&#19968;&#31181;&#23567;&#40060;&#12290;&#32780;&#21476;&#27721;&#35821;&#21017;&#35828; &#8220;&#40128;&#8221;&#26159;&#31181;&#22823;&#40104;&#40060;&#12290;&#35768;&#24910;&#30340;&#12298;&#35828;&#25991;&#35299;&#23383;&#12299;&#27880;&#65306;&#8220;&#39808;&#65292;&#39822;&#20063;&#12290;&#8221;&#27611;&#20256;&#30342;&#26352;&#65306;&#8220;&#40104;&#39808;&#20063;&#8221;&#65292;&#8220;&#39822;&#21035;&#21517;&#40128;&#8221;&#12290;&#21487;&#35265;&#21476;&#20195;&#30340;&#8220;&#40128;&#8221;&#23383;&#26159;&#25351;&#40104;&#40060;&#26080;&#30097;&#12290;&#36234;&#29579;&#21246;&#36341;&#35828;&#36234;&#20154;&#8220;&#27700;&#34892;&#32780;&#23665;&#22788;&#8221;&#12290;&#19996;&#21335;&#27839;&#28023;&#36234;&#20154;&#20197;&#33322;&#28023;&#12289;&#28180;&#29454;&#20026;&#29983;&#65292;&#32463;&#24120;&#20986;&#27809;&#20110;&#22823;&#28023;&#27874;&#28059;&#20043;&#20013;&#65292;&#29983;&#27515;&#38590;&#21340;&#12290;&#27521;&#20110;&#29378;&#39118;&#24694;&#28010;&#20043;&#19979;&#65292;&#33900;&#36523;&#40104;&#40060;&#21475;&#33145;&#20043;&#20013;&#30340;&#20107;&#24120;&#26377;&#21457;&#29983;&#65292;&#25925;&#21246;&#36341;&#23545;&#36234;&#20154;&#30340;&#33322;&#28023;&#36763;&#37240;&#21490;&#26377;&#19968;&#27573;&#24754;&#22766;&#30340;&#24863;&#36171;&#65306;&#8220;&#36234;&#22269;&#35199;&#21017;&#36843;&#27743;&#65292;&#19996;&#21017;&#34180;&#28023;&#65292;&#27700;&#23646;&#33485;&#22825;&#65292;&#19979;&#19981;&#30693;&#25152;&#27490;&#12290;&#20132;&#38169;&#30456;&#36807;&#65292;&#27874;&#28059;&#28652;&#27969;&#65292;&#27785;&#32780;&#22797;&#36215;&#65292;&#22240;&#22797;&#30456;&#36824;&#12290;&#28009;&#28009;&#20043;&#27700;&#65292;&#26397;&#22805;&#26082;&#26377;&#26102;&#65292;&#21160;&#20316;&#33509;&#24778;&#39559;&#65292;&#22768;&#38899;&#33509;&#38647;&#38662;&#65292;&#27874;&#28059;&#25588;&#32780;&#36215;&#65292;&#33337;&#22827;&#19981;&#33021;&#25937;&#65292;&#26411;&#30693;&#21629;&#20043;&#25152;&#32500;&#12290;&#24565;&#27004;&#33337;&#20043;&#33510;&#65292;&#28053;&#27875;&#19981;&#27490;&#12290;&#8221;&#65288;&#12298;&#32477;&#36234;&#20070;&#12299;&#21367;&#22235;&#65289;&#12290;&#19968;&#37096;&#33322;&#28023;&#30340;&#34880;&#27882;&#21490;&#65292;&#19990;&#19990;&#20195;&#20195;&#21051;&#39592;&#38125;&#24515;&#12290;&#22240;&#27492;&#65292;&#20182;&#20204;&#19981;&#22826;&#21487;&#33021;&#20197;&#22823;&#40104;&#40060;&#26469;&#20316;&#20026;&#33258;&#24049; ....
> 
> ...
> 
> &#31532;&#19977;&#33410; &#38610; &#36234;&#65288;&#27597;&#26435;&#26102;&#20195;&#30340;&#33258;&#31216;&#65289;
> 
> &#30334;&#36234;&#30340;&#8220;&#30334;&#8221;&#23383;&#65292;&#26159;&#26126;&#20854;&#36234;&#20154;&#26063;&#31867;&#20043;&#22810;&#65292;&#8220;&#36234;&#8221;&#25165;&#26159;&#26063;&#21517;&#12290;&#23545;&#8220;&#36234;&#20154;&#8221;&#30340;&#30001;&#26469;&#65292;&#21382;&#20195;&#23398;&#32773;&#20204;&#26377;&#19981;&#21516;&#30340;&#35299;&#37322;&#12290;
> 
> &#19968;&#26159;&#22240;&#22320;&#21517;&#32780;&#24471;&#26063;&#21517;&#35828;&#12290;&#19968;&#35828;&#29664;&#27743;&#21476;&#20195;&#21483;&#8220;&#36234;&#27827;&#8221;&#65292;&#36234;&#20154;&#26159;&#26368;&#20808;&#29983;&#27963;&#22312;&#36825;&#37324;&#30340;&#27665;&#26063;&#65292;&#25925;&#21483;&#8220;&#36234;&#26063;&#8221;&#12290;&#20108;&#35828;&#24191;&#19996;&#24191;&#35199;&#31216;&#20026;&#8220;&#31908;&#8221;&#65292;&#21476;&#20195;&#8220;&#31908;&#8221;&#12289;&#8220;&#36234;&#8221;&#20108;&#23383;&#30456;&#36890;&#12290;&#12298;&#35828;&#25991;&#35299;&#23383;&#12299;&#27880;&#65306;&#8220;&#36234;&#20110;&#20063;&#65292;&#27492;&#20551;&#20511;&#36234;&#20026;&#31908;&#20063;&#12290;&#8221;&#25925;&#30334;&#36234;&#21448;&#31216;&#8220;&#30334;&#31908;&#8221;&#12290;&#20808;&#26377;&#22320;&#21517;&#28982;&#21518;&#26377;&#26063;&#21517;&#65292;&#36824;&#26159;&#20808;&#26377;&#26063;&#21517;&#32780;&#21518;&#26377;&#22320;&#21517;&#65311;&#26082;&#28982;&#36234;&#20154;&#26159;&#26368;&#20808;&#29983;&#24687;&#22312;&#29664;&#27743;&#27969;&#22495;&#65292;&#23601;&#24212;&#35813;&#26159;&#20808;&#26377;&#26063;&#21517;&#25165;&#26377;&#22320;&#21517;&#65292;&#36234;&#27827;&#12289;&#31908;&#22320;&#22240;&#36234;&#26063;&#32780;&#24471;&#21517;&#12290;
> 
> &#20108;&#26159;&#22240;&#27494;&#22120;&#32780;&#24471;&#26063;&#21517;&#35828;&#12290;&#38074;&#65292;&#26159;&#36234;&#20154;&#21457;&#26126;&#30340;&#20891;&#20107;&#27494;&#22120;&#65292;&#22799;&#26397;&#22799;&#23569;&#24247;&#27515;&#21518;&#65292;&#26492;&#30331;&#24093;&#20301;&#65292;&#20182;&#29575;&#21326;&#22799;&#21508;&#26063;&#21435;&#25171;&#23665;&#19996;&#65292;&#26377;&#30340;&#36127;&#22823;&#24339;&#21442;&#19982;&#25112;&#26007;&#65292;&#26377;&#30340;&#36127;&#38074;&#21442;&#19982;&#25112;&#26007;&#12290;&#36127;&#24339;&#32773;&#21363;&#31216;&#20026;&#8220;&#22839;&#20154;&#8221;&#65292;&#36127;&#38074;&#32773;&#21363;&#31216;&#20026;&#8220;&#36234;&#20154;&#8221;&#12290;&#36825;&#20010;&#35828;&#27861;&#26174;&#28982;&#26159;&#29301;&#24378;&#38468;&#20250;&#12290;&#19968;&#20010;&#22312;&#24403;&#26102;&#25484;&#25569;&#20102;&#20918;&#28860;&#25216;&#26415;&#65292;&#20250;&#36896;&#26023;&#12289;&#38074;&#12289;&#21073;&#31561;&#27494;&#22120;&#30340;&#20808;&#36827;&#27665;&#26063;&#38590;&#36947;&#36830;&#19968;&#20010;&#26063;&#21517;&#37117;&#27809;&#26377;&#21527;&#65311;&#22914;&#26524;&#35828;&#8220;&#36234;&#8221;&#26159;&#22240;&#20026;&#27494;&#22120;&#8220;&#38074;&#8221; &#32780;&#24471;&#21517;&#65292;&#37027;&#24186;&#8220;&#38074;&#8221;&#21448;&#20174;&#20309;&#32780;&#24471;&#21517;&#65311;&#22825;&#19979;&#19975;&#20107;&#19975;&#29289;&#37117;&#26159;&#20154;&#23450;&#30340;&#21517;&#65292;&#8220;&#38074;&#8221;&#26159;&#36234;&#20154;&#30340;&#21019;&#36896;&#21457;&#26126;&#65292;&#36234;&#20154;&#25226;&#36825;&#31181;&#27494;&#22120;&#21483;&#20570;&#8220;&#38074;&#8221;&#65292;&#36825;&#25165;&#26159;&#31526;&#21512;&#24773;&#29702;&#30340;&#12290;
> &#19977;&#26159;&#22240;&#36801;&#24473;&#32780;&#24471;&#26063;&#21517;&#35828;&#12290;&#36234;&#26063;&#26159;&#21476;&#32769;&#30340;&#27665;&#26063;&#65292;&#20063;&#26159;&#20013;&#21326;&#30340;&#20027;&#20307;&#27665;&#26063;&#12290;&#20004;&#19975;&#22810;&#24180;&#21069;&#29983;&#24687;&#32321;&#34893;&#22312;&#21271;&#37096;&#28286;&#21450;&#21335;&#26041;&#23665;&#21306;&#65292;&#21518;&#26469;&#36880;&#27493;&#24448;&#22806;&#36801;&#24473;&#12290;&#24448;&#19996;&#36801;&#30340;&#21483;&#8220;&#19996;&#36234;&#8221;&#65292;&#24448;&#35199;&#36801;&#30340;&#21483;&#8220;&#35199;&#21335;&#36234;&#8221;&#65292;&#24448;&#20869;&#22320;&#36801;&#30340;&#21483;&#8220;&#20869;&#36234;&#8221;&#65292;&#24448;&#28023;&#22806;&#36801;&#30340;&#21483;&#8220;&#22806;&#36234;&#8221;&#65292;&#36328;&#36807;&#38271;&#27743;&#40644;&#27827;&#21271;&#19978;&#30340;&#21483;&#8220;&#22799;&#36234;&#8221;&#12290;&#38610;&#36234;&#20154;&#26159;&#19968;&#20010;&#24449;&#26381;&#34542;&#33618;&#30340;&#27665;&#26063;&#65292;&#20182;&#20204;&#38383;&#21335;&#36208;&#21271;&#65292;&#28418;&#27915;&#36807;&#28023;&#65292;&#8220;&#24320;&#25299;&#28024;&#24191;&#8221;&#65288;&#21496;&#39532;&#36801;&#35821;&#65289;&#65292;&#30340;&#30830;&#26159;&#19968;&#20010;&#36328;&#36234;&#21382;&#21490;&#36827;&#31243;&#30340;&#20255;&#22823;&#27665;&#26063;&#12290;&#22240;&#27492;&#26377;&#23398;&#32773;&#35828;&#8220;&#30334;&#36234;&#8221;&#26159;&#22240;&#21335;&#21271;&#36328;&#36234;&#65292;&#21040;&#22788;&#24320;&#25299;&#32780;&#24471;&#21517;&#26080;&#30097;&#12290;&#20174;&#36825;&#20010;&#24847;&#20041;&#19978;&#26469;&#31216;&#21628;&#36234;&#26063;&#20498;&#26159;&#24456;&#25447;&#30340;&#12290;&#20294;&#30334;&#36234;&#27665;&#26063;&#26089;&#22312;&#19968;&#19975;&#22810;&#24180;&#21069;&#23601;&#26377;&#20102;&#33258;&#24049;&#30340;&#26063;&#31216;&#65292;&#24182;&#19981;&#22240;&#20026;&#36208;&#36941;&#19990;&#30028;&#25165;&#24471;&#19968;&#20010;&#8220;&#36234;&#8221;&#23383;&#65292;&#25165;&#26377;&#33258;&#24049;&#30340;&#26063;&#31216;&#12290;&#22240;&#27492;&#65292;&#36801;&#24473;&#35828;&#20063;&#21482;&#26159;&#19968;&#20010;&#24847;&#21521;&#24615;&#30340;&#25512;&#27979;&#12290;
> 
> &#22235;&#26159;&#22240;&#23448;&#21517;&#32780;&#24471;&#26063;&#21517;&#35828;&#12290;&#26377;&#36164;&#26009;&#35828;&#8220;&#20110;&#36234;&#8221;&#26159;&#36797;&#20195;&#30340;&#23448;&#21517;&#65292;&#23621;&#20110;&#30334;&#23448;&#20043;&#19978;&#65292;&#26159;&#21531;&#20027;&#23545;&#21151;&#21171;&#26368;&#22823;&#30340;&#33251;&#23376;&#30340;&#22870;&#23581;&#12290;&#36797;&#20195;9&#20301;&#30343;&#24093;&#32479;&#27835;&#20102;210&#22810;&#24180;&#65292;&#21482;&#26377;10&#20010;&#33251;&#23376;&#34987;&#23553;&#20026;&#8220;&#20110;&#36234;&#8221;&#65292;&#8220;&#20110;&#36234;&#8221;&#20043;&#31216;&#30001;&#27492;&#32780;&#26469;&#12290;&#8220;&#20110;&#36234;&#8221;&#20043;&#31216;&#26368;&#26089;&#35265;&#20110;&#22799;&#26397;&#65292;&#26159;&#30334;&#36234;&#27665;&#26063;&#30340;&#26368;&#26089;&#26063;&#31216;&#65292;&#23427;&#19982;&#8220;&#38610;&#36234;&#8221;&#26159;&#19968;&#20010;&#24847;&#24605;&#12290;&#22799;&#26397;&#19982;&#36797;&#20195;&#30456;&#36317;&#20004;&#21315;&#22810;&#24180;&#65292;&#36797;&#20195;&#30340;&#23448;&#21517;&#24590;&#24186;&#25104;&#20102;&#22799;&#26397;&#30340;&#26063;&#21517;&#65311;
> 
> &#20116;&#26159;&#22240;&#28526;&#27700;&#28072;&#33853;&#32780;&#24471;&#26063;&#21517;&#12290;&#27492;&#35828;&#30340;&#20381;&#25454;&#26159;&#12298;&#27700;&#32463;&#27880;&#12299;&#30340;&#19968;&#27573;&#35760;&#36733;&#65306;&#8220;&#20132;&#36286;&#26132;&#26410;&#26377;&#37089;&#21439;&#20043;&#26102;&#65292;&#22320;&#26377;&#38610;&#30000;&#65292;&#20854;&#30000;&#20174;&#28526;&#27700;&#19978;&#19979;&#65292;&#27665;&#22438;&#20854;&#30000;&#65292;&#22240;&#21517;&#20026;&#38610;&#27665;&#12290;&#8221;&#36825;&#37324;&#35828;&#24471;&#24456;&#28165;&#26970;&#65306;&#38610;&#36234;&#26159;&#22240;&#31181;&#38610;&#30000;&#32780;&#24471;&#21517;&#12290;&#28526;&#27700;&#35770;&#32773;&#21017;&#35828;&#65306;&#28526;&#27700;&#28072;&#33853;&#30340;&#8220;&#33853;&#8221;&#23383;&#19982;&#8220;&#38610;&#8221;&#23383;&#30456;&#36890;&#65292;&#8220;&#20174;&#8221;&#23383;&#19982;&#8220;&#36234;&#8221;&#23383;&#30456;&#36890;&#65292;&#20174;&#32780;&#24471;&#20986;&#8220;&#38610;&#36234;&#26159;&#22240;&#28526;&#27700;&#28072;&#33853;&#32780;&#24471;&#21517;&#8221;&#30340;&#32467;&#35770;&#65292;&#36825;&#32431;&#23646;&#26080;&#31293;&#20043;&#35848;&#12290;
> 
> &#20845;&#26159;&#22240;&#20154;&#21517;&#32780;&#24471;&#26063;&#21517;&#35828;&#12290;&#36825;&#26159;&#22823;&#23398;&#38382;&#23478;&#21496;&#39532;&#36801;&#30340;&#35828;&#27861;&#65292;&#8220;&#26132;&#32773;&#36234;&#20808;&#21531;&#26080;&#20313;&#65292;&#20035;&#31161;&#20043;&#19990;&#65292;&#21035;&#23553;&#20110;&#36234;&#65292;&#20197;&#23432;&#31161;&#20898;&#12290;&#8221;&#65288;&#12298;&#21490;&#35760;.&#36213;&#19990;&#23478;&#12299;&#65289;&#12290;&#25454;&#12298;&#21490;&#35760;&#12299;&#21644;&#12298;&#21556;&#36234;&#26149;&#31179;&#12299;&#35760;&#36733;&#65292;&#24403;&#24180;&#22823;&#31161;&#24033;&#29417;&#22825;&#19979;&#65292;&#22238;&#21040;&#22823;&#36234;&#65292;&#30331;&#19978;&#20250;&#31293;&#33541;&#23665;&#65288;&#19968;&#20316;&#33495;&#23665;&#65289;&#26397;&#35265;&#22235;&#26041;&#35832;&#20505;&#65292;&#23553;&#26377;&#21151;&#65292;&#29237;&#26377;&#24503;&#12290;&#36234;&#22269;&#24320;&#22269;&#20043;&#21531;&#26080;&#20313;&#21517;&#8220;&#20110;&#36234;&#8221;&#65292;&#26159;&#22799;&#23569;&#24247;&#20043;&#24246;&#23376;&#65292;&#20026;&#32493;&#22823;&#36234;&#39321;&#28779;&#65292;&#23569;&#24247;&#23553;&#20854;&#20026;&#36234;&#29579;&#65292;&#21495;&#8220;&#26080;&#20313;&#8221;&#12290;&#24314;&#37117;&#20250;&#31293;&#12290;&#36154;&#24490;&#22312;&#12298;&#20250;&#31293;&#35760;&#12299;&#20013;&#35828;&#65306;&#8220;&#23569;&#24247;&#65292;&#20854;&#23569;&#23376;&#21495;&#26352;&#20110;&#36234;&#65292;&#36234;&#22269;&#20043;&#31216;&#22987;&#27492;&#12290;&#8221;&#35768;&#22810;&#23398;&#32773;&#20542;&#21521;&#20110;&#36825;&#31181;&#35828;&#27861;&#12290;&#33509;&#36825;&#20123;&#25991;&#29486;&#35760;&#36733;&#26159;&#30495;&#23454;&#30340;&#35805;&#65292;&#25105;&#20204;&#21487;&#20197;&#20174;&#20013;&#24471;&#20986;&#22914;&#19979;&#20960;&#28857;&#32467;&#35770;&#65306;
> 
> 1&#12289;&#22823;&#31161;&#24033;&#34892;&#22825;&#19979;&#22238;&#21040;&#22823;&#36234;&#65292;&#35828;&#26126;&#22823;&#31161;&#21407;&#26159;&#20250;&#31293;&#19968;&#24102;&#30340;&#36234;&#20154;&#65292;&#23646;&#21490;&#20070;&#25152;&#35828;&#30340;&#8220;&#21335;&#36234;&#21271;&#36801;&#8221;&#20043;&#27665;&#65292;&#22823;&#31161;&#30340;&#27665;&#26063;&#25104;&#20221;&#24212;&#20026;&#8220;&#36234;&#26063;&#8221;&#12290;
> 
> 2&#12289;&#31161;&#24033;&#22825;&#19979;&#65292;&#22238;&#21040;&#20250;&#31293;&#8220;&#26397;&#35265;&#35832;&#20505;&#8221;&#65292;&#35828;&#26126;&#20250;&#31293;&#26159;&#30334;&#36234;&#30340;&#25919;&#27835;&#20013;&#24515;&#12290;
> 
> 3&#12289;&#31161;&#23849;&#21518;&#33900;&#20110;&#20250;&#31293;&#33541;&#23665;&#26159;&#8220;&#33853;&#21494;&#24402;&#26681;&#8221;&#12290;
> 
> 4&#12289;&#23553;&#22799;&#23569;&#24247;&#20026;&#36234;&#22269;&#21531;&#20027;&#65292;&#26159;&#20026;&#20102;&#32493;&#22823;&#36234;&#39321;&#28779;&#65292;&#35828;&#26126;&#34429;&#28982;&#21271;&#19978;&#24314;&#31435;&#20102;&#22799;&#26397;&#65292;&#20294;&#20173;&#28982;&#24565;&#24565;&#19981;&#24536;&#33258;&#24049;&#30340;&#20065;&#22303;&#65292;&#19981;&#24536;&#33258;&#24049;&#30340;&#22269;&#23478;&#9472;&#36234;&#22269;&#12290;&#23553;&#22799;&#23569;&#24247;&#20026;&#21531;&#20027;&#65292;&#26377;&#22914;&#29616;&#22312;&#30340;&#8220;&#27966;&#20986;&#8221;&#20043;&#24847;&#12290;
> 
> 5&#12289;&#31161;&#24033;&#22825;&#19979;&#22238;&#21040;&#8220;&#22823;&#36234;&#8221;&#65292;&#21453;&#36807;&#26469;&#35828;&#21271;&#19978;&#30340;&#36234;&#20154;&#26159;&#8220;&#23567;&#36234;&#8221;&#65292;&#35828;&#26126;&#21335;&#26041;&#26159;&#36234;&#20154;&#30340;&#22823;&#26412;&#33829;&#65292;&#21271;&#19978;&#30340;&#36234;&#20154;&#26159;&#23567;&#37096;&#33853;&#12290;
> 
> 6&#12289;&#20197;&#23665;&#35199;&#23433;&#37009;&#65288;&#20170;&#23665;&#35199;&#30465;&#36816;&#22478;&#24066;&#22799;&#21439;&#65289;&#20026;&#37117;&#30340;&#21271;&#26041;&#22799;&#36234;&#22269;&#21644;&#20197;&#20250;&#31293;&#20026;&#37117;&#30340;&#21335;&#36234;&#22269;&#37117;&#26159;&#36234;&#20154;&#24314;&#31435;&#30340;&#22269;&#23478;&#65288;&#19979;&#25991;&#21478;&#26377;&#35814;&#35770;&#65289;&#12290;
> 
> &#25105;&#20204;&#26080;&#27861;&#26597;&#23454;&#22799;&#23569;&#24247;&#26159;&#19981;&#26159;&#21483;&#8220;&#20110;&#36234;&#8221;&#65292;&#20294;&#25105;&#20204;&#21487;&#20197;&#32943;&#23450;&#8220;&#20110;&#36234;&#8221;&#23601;&#26159;&#8220;&#38610;&#36234;&#8221;&#65292; &#8220;&#38610;&#36234;&#8221;&#25165;&#26159;&#30334;&#36234;&#27665;&#26063;&#30340;&#33258;&#31216;&#12289;&#22987;&#31216;&#12290;&#8220;&#38610;&#36234;&#8221;&#26089;&#22312;2&#19975;&#24180;&#21069;&#23601;&#24051;&#32463;&#23384;&#22312;&#12290;
> 
> &#8220;&#38610;&#8221;&#65292;&#21476;&#38899;&#35835;&#27931;&#12289;&#21679;&#12289;&#39558;&#12289;&#32599;&#65292;&#20375;&#21488;&#35821;&#35835;&#8220;&#38610;&#8221;&#12289;&#8220;&#21895;&#8221;&#12290;&#8220;&#38610;&#8221;&#20026;&#20309;&#29289;&#65311;&#12298;&#35828;&#25991;&#35299;&#23383;&#12299;&#27880;&#65306;&#38610;&#65292;&#24524;&#40479;&#20854;&#40479;&#12290;&#24524;&#20854;&#65292;&#38593;&#20063;&#65292;&#22823;&#26352;&#40511;&#38593;&#65292;&#23567;&#26352;&#38593;&#40517;&#12290;&#12298;&#21490;&#35760;.&#36213;&#19990;&#23478;&#12299;&#20113;&#65306;&#8220;&#23567;&#33251;&#20043;&#22909;&#23556;&#20854;&#40479;&#38593;&#12289;&#32599;&#40555;&#12290;&#8221;&#39759;.&#38426;&#39555;&#22312;&#20182;&#30340;&#12298;&#21313;&#19977;&#24030;&#24535;&#12299;&#20013;&#20063;&#31216;&#38610;&#20026;&#38593;&#12290;&#36234;&#20154;&#20197;&#8220;&#38610;&#8221;&#20026;&#22995;&#65292;&#20197;&#8220;&#38610;&#8221;&#20026;&#26063;&#21517;&#65292;&#22312;&#21490;&#20070;&#19978;&#26377;&#35768;&#22810;&#35760;&#36733;&#12290;
> 
> &#8220;&#20132;&#36286;&#26410;&#26377;&#37089;&#21439;&#20043;&#26102;&#65292;&#22303;&#22320;&#26377;&#38610;&#30000;&#65292;&#20854;&#30000;&#20174;&#28246;&#27700;&#19978;&#19979;&#65292;&#27665;&#22438;&#20854;&#30000;&#65292;&#22240;&#21517;&#20026;&#38610;&#27665;&#12290;&#8221;&#65288;&#12298;&#27700;&#32463;&#27880;&#12299;&#21367;31&#65289;&#12290;
> 
> &#8220;&#22823;&#36234;&#28023;&#28392;&#20043;&#27665;&#65292;&#29420;&#20197;&#40479;&#30000;&#65292;&#22823;&#23567;&#26377;&#24046;&#65292;&#36827;&#36864;&#26377;&#34892;&#65292;&#33707;&#23558;&#33258;&#20351;&#65292;&#20854;&#25925;&#20309;&#20063;&#12290;&#8221;&#65288;&#12298;&#32477;&#36234;&#20070;&#12299;&#21367;&#20843;&#65289;
> 
> &#8220;&#19978;&#34398;&#21439;&#26377;&#38593;&#20026;&#27665;&#30000;&#65292;&#26149;&#25300;&#33609;&#26681;&#65292;&#31179;&#38500;&#20854;&#31229;&#65292;&#25925;&#36234;&#20154;&#22857;&#20026;&#22270;&#33150;&#12290;&#8221;&#65288;&#21313;&#19977;&#24030;&#24535;&#12299;&#24352;&#28557;&#36753;&#26412;&#65289;
> 
> &#19996;&#27721;&#29579;&#20805;&#20063;&#22312;&#12298;&#35770;&#34913;&#12299;&#20013;&#35828;&#65306;&#8220;&#33485;&#26791;&#22810;&#35937;&#20043;&#22320;&#65292;&#20250;&#31293;&#20247;&#40479;&#25152;&#23621;&#8230;&#8230;&#33308;&#27515;&#33485;&#26791;&#65288;&#20170;&#38646;&#38517;&#65289;&#65292;&#35937;&#20026;&#20043;&#32789;&#65292;&#40479;&#20026;&#20043;&#32792;&#12290;&#8221;&#25925;&#21382;&#21490;&#19978;&#25226;&#21407;&#22987;&#31291;&#20316;&#38454;&#27573;&#31216;&#20026;&#8220;&#35937;&#32789;&#40479;&#32792;&#8221;&#12290;
> 
> &#8220;&#31161;&#23849;&#20043;&#21518;&#65292;&#20247;&#29790;&#24182;&#21435;&#65292;&#22825;&#32654;&#31161;&#24503;&#65292;&#32780;&#21171;&#20854;&#21151;&#65292;&#20351;&#30334;&#40479;&#36824;&#20026;&#27665;&#30000;&#8230;&#8230;&#12290;&#8221;&#12298;&#21556;&#36234;&#26149;&#31179;&#12299;
> 
> &#20375;&#26063;&#30340;&#12298;&#36828;&#31062;&#27468;&#12299;&#20013;&#20063;&#26377;&#35814;&#32454;&#30340;&#35760;&#21465;&#65306;&#8220;&#20193;&#35272;&#28418;&#27915;&#36807;&#28023;&#21507;&#23613;&#33510;&#65292;&#33853;&#23621;&#21040;&#27700;&#29980;&#22303;&#32933;&#30340;&#22909;&#22320;&#26041;&#8230;&#8230;&#28246;&#27700;&#33579;&#33579;&#19981;&#35265;&#36793;&#65292;&#33446;&#33479;&#38271;&#21040;&#27801;&#27954;&#19978;&#65292;&#28246;&#28286;&#24320;&#30000;&#31181;&#27700;&#31291;&#65292;&#33391;&#31165;&#21892;&#40479;&#26469;&#37030;&#24537;&#8230;&#8230;&#22235;&#26376;&#38593;&#40517;&#26469;&#25773;&#31181;&#65292;&#20116;&#26376;&#20185;&#40548;&#26469;&#25554;&#31207;&#65292;&#20845;&#26376;&#31207;&#40481;&#38500;&#26434;&#33609;&#65292;&#19971;&#26376;&#38134;&#29141;&#24110;&#21486;&#34647;&#65292;&#20843;&#26376;&#35895;&#23376;&#37329;&#28799;&#28799;&#65292;&#20061;&#26376;&#21313;&#26376;&#21098;&#31166;&#24537;&#12290;&#8230;&#8230;&#8221;
> 
> &#35768;&#24910;&#22312;&#12298;&#35828;&#25991;&#35299;&#23383;&#12299;&#20013;&#35828;&#65306;&#38593;&#40517;&#8220;&#26377;&#20154;&#36947;&#65292;&#20154;&#20197;&#20026;&#25370;&#12290;&#8221;&#20375;&#26063;&#12298;&#36828;&#31062;&#27468;&#12299;&#20013;&#35828;&#65306;&#20185;&#40548;&#65288;&#19978;&#21476;&#26102;&#20195;&#40548;&#12289;&#22825;&#40517;&#20063;&#31216;&#20316;&#38593;&#40517;&#65289;&#21754;&#32946;&#8220;&#38610;&#26356;&#8221;&#65288;&#21363;&#20375;&#26063;&#65289;&#32321;&#34893;&#23376;&#23385;&#65292;&#36176;&#8220;&#38610;&#26356;&#8221;&#20197;&#35895;&#31181;&#65292;&#25945;&#8220;&#38610;&#26356;&#8221;&#32789;&#31181;&#65292;&#25945;&#8220;&#38610;&#26356;&#8221;&#35828;&#35805;&#12289;&#21809;&#27468;&#12289;&#36339;&#33310;&#12290;&#8220;&#38593;&#40517;&#26377;&#20154;&#36947;&#65292;&#20154;&#20197;&#20026;&#25370;&#8221;&#65292;&#25152;&#20197;&#26356;&#27665;&#23558;&#31291;&#30000;&#31216;&#20026;&#8220;&#38610;&#30000;&#8221;&#12289;&#8220;&#38593;&#30000;&#8221;&#65292;&#33258;&#31216;&#8220;&#38610;&#27665;&#8221;&#12290;
> 
> &#8220;&#35937;&#32789;&#40479;&#32792;&#8221;&#26159;&#21407;&#22987;&#31291;&#20316;&#26102;&#20195;&#65292;&#37027;&#24186;&#65292;&#36825;&#20010;&#26102;&#20195;&#36317;&#20170;&#22810;&#20037;&#21602;&#65311;&#32771;&#21476;&#21457;&#29616;&#26159;&#26368;&#21487;&#38752;&#30340;&#35777;&#25454;&#12290;
> &#28246;&#21335;&#36947;&#21439;&#29577;&#34814;&#23721;&#31291;&#20316;&#25991;&#21270;&#36951;&#22336;&#21457;&#29616;&#30340;&#20154;&#24037;&#26685;&#22521;&#27700;&#31291;&#65292;&#32463;&#20013;&#32654;&#19987;&#23478;&#32852;&#21512;&#37492;&#23450;&#36317;&#20170;&#24050;&#26377;1.86&#19975;&#24180;&#12290;
> 
> &#28246;&#21335;&#28583;&#21439;&#24429;&#22836;&#23665;&#31291;&#20316;&#25991;&#21270;&#36951;&#22336;&#20986;&#22303;&#30340;&#31291;&#35895;&#36951;&#29289;&#65292;&#36317;&#20170;&#24050;&#26377;8000&#22810;&#24180;&#12290;
> 
> &#28246;&#21335;&#40660;&#38451;&#39640;&#24217;&#31291;&#20316;&#25991;&#21270;&#36951;&#22336;&#20986;&#22303;&#30340;&#31291;&#35895;&#36951;&#29289;&#65292;&#36317;&#20170;&#24050;&#26377;7400&#24180;&#12290;
> 
> &#27743;&#35199;&#19975;&#24180;&#20185;&#20154;&#27934;&#19982;&#21514;&#26742;&#29615;&#21457;&#29616;&#30340;&#20154;&#24037;&#26685;&#22521;&#31291;&#25159;&#24418;&#20307;&#30789;&#30707;&#65292;&#36317;&#20170;&#32422;9000&#65293;14000&#24180;&#12290;
> 
> &#27743;&#33487;&#39640;&#37038;&#40857;&#34412;&#24196;&#36951;&#22336;&#20986;&#22303;&#30340;&#25968;&#21315;&#31890;&#28845;&#21270;&#31291;&#65292;&#36317;&#20170;&#24050;&#26377;7000&#24180;&#12290;
> 
> &#27993;&#27743;&#20313;&#23002;&#27827;&#22982;&#28193;&#25991;&#21270;&#36951;&#22336;&#65292;&#21457;&#29616;&#26377;&#36817;400&#24179;&#26041;&#31859;&#30340;&#31291;&#33609;&#21450;&#35895;&#31890;&#22534;&#31215;&#23618;&#65292;&#36317;&#20170;&#24050;&#26377;7000&#22810;&#24180;&#12290;
> 
> &#20197;&#19978;&#32771;&#21476;&#21457;&#29616;&#35828;&#26126;&#65292;&#30334;&#36234;&#27665;&#26063;&#31181;&#26893;&#27700;&#31291;&#30340;&#21382;&#21490;&#24050;&#26377;1&#19975;&#22810;&#24180;&#65292;&#8220;&#38610;&#36234;&#8221;&#26159;&#27700;&#31291;&#31181;&#26893;&#30340;&#39318;&#21019;&#32773;&#12290;&#32780;&#22799;&#26397;&#36317;&#20170;&#21482;&#19981;&#36807;&#20116;&#21315;&#24180;&#12290;&#21487;&#35265;&#65292;&#8220;&#38610;&#36234;&#8221;&#20063;&#19981;&#26159;&#22240;&#22799;&#23569;&#24247;&#30340;&#38597;&#21495;&#32780;&#24471;&#21517;&#12290;&#37027;&#24186;&#65292;&#20026;&#20309;&#35828;&#8220;&#20110;&#36234;&#8221;&#23601;&#26159;&#8220;&#38610;&#36234;&#8221;&#21602;&#65311;
> 
> &#25105;&#20204;&#39318;&#20808;&#35848;&#19968;&#35848;&#22839;&#36234;&#12289;&#20110;&#36234;&#12289;&#38610;&#36234;&#19977;&#32773;&#20043;&#38388;&#30340;&#20851;&#31995;&#12290;
> 
> ...



Today's Vietnamese are from Luo Yue. So, it is clear that Vietnamese people are the descendants of the Chinese, and like mixed with other racial.

In fact, Yue Kingdom is descendants of &#31161; (when &#31161; died one of his sons was looking after his tomb in Zhejiang and later became the king of Yue Kingdom), so Luo Yue is mostly 100% Chinese.

BTW, the more I read the history, the more I feel pity for those ignorant Vietnamese's posts of their history...

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## ChineseTiger1986

gpit said:


> I beg to differ completely the second part: "but...".
> 
> There are many research works. Let me just quote this blog. I think it may not be 100% accurate, but is mostly what we know so far. It's pretty long, but I enjoy spending time on it.
> 
> 
> 
> Today's Vietnamese are from Luo Yue. So, it is clear that Vietnamese people are the descendants of the Chinese, and like mixed with other racial.
> 
> In fact, Yue Kingdom is descendants of &#31161; (when &#31161; died one of his sons was looking after his tomb in Zhejiang and later became the king of Yue Kingdom), so Luo Yue is mostly 100% Chinese.
> 
> BTW, the more I read the history, the more I feel pity for those ignorant Vietnamese's posts of their history...


 
Maybe, since the ancient Bai Yue was also part of the Hua Xia tribes, so this could explain why the modern Vietnamese acquired a significant portion of the O3a haplogroup.

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## pandarunner

gpit said:


> I beg to differ completely the second part: "but...".
> 
> There are many research works. Let me just quote this blog. I think it may not be 100% accurate, but is mostly what we know so far. It's pretty long, but I enjoy spending time on it.
> 
> 
> 
> Today's Vietnamese are from Luo Yue. So, it is clear that Vietnamese people are the descendants of the Chinese, and like mixed with other racial.
> 
> In fact, Yue Kingdom is descendants of &#31161; (when &#31161; died one of his sons was looking after his tomb in Zhejiang and later became the king of Yue Kingdom), so Luo Yue is mostly 100% Chinese.
> 
> BTW, the more I read the history, the more I feel pity for those ignorant Vietnamese's posts of their history...


 
Vietnam historians better learn some chinese before going for their research and study, coz the reference either preserved in China or writen in chinese.
Anyway, the NanYue people have created a magnificent culture, surprisingly advanced.


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## pandarunner

ChineseTiger1986 said:


> Maybe, since the ancient Bai Yue was also part of the Hua Xia tribes, so this could explain why the modern Vietnamese acquired a significant portion of the O3a haplogroup.


 
They maybe or maybe not belong to Huaxia tribe, I would say there were integration of Huaxia descendants into Baiyue.


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## Peter

gpit said:


> It could be.
> 
> In, around or even later than Qin, South was a generally very uncivilized area compared with the Middle Land. The South only possessed preliminary technologies such as planting rice in paddy fields, etc.
> 
> &#21335;&#34542;means "Southern Barbarians". That's what it was.
> 
> I tend to believe that today's Vietnam might be formed from a couple of ancient "Hundred Viets". Maybe.


 
That doesn't make sense! If the South only possessed preliminary technologies such as planting rice in paddy fields, etc ... then what is the "Southern Barbarians" meant? Barbarians are such as "*planting rice in paddy fields*" people?

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## Peter

Peter said:


> That doesn't make sense! If the South only possessed preliminary technologies such as planting rice in paddy fields, etc ... then what is the "Southern Barbarians" meant? Barbarians are such as "*planting rice in paddy fields*" people?


 
Isn't it, "barbarian" - an individual reference to a brutal, cruel, warlike, insensitive person?


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## ChineseTiger1986

Peter said:


> Isn't it, "barbarian" - an individual reference to a brutal, cruel, warlike, insensitive person?


 
Bro, these so-called "Southern Barbarians" have nothing to do with the modern Vietnamese.

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## Peter

ChineseTiger1986 said:


> Bro, these so-called "Southern Barbarians" have nothing to do with the modern Vietnamese.


 
So, who are "Southern Barbarians" and who are the modern Vietnamese then?


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## ChineseTiger1986

Peter said:


> So, who are "Southern Barbarians" and who are the modern Vietnamese then?


 
Vietnam means the South of Yue, which is not Yue itself.

And i am also sure that the ancient Bai Yue should look much closer to the modern Chinese in appearance than they do to the modern Vietnamese who are heavily mixed with the Southeast Asians.

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## S10

Peter said:


> So, who are "Southern Barbarians" and who are the modern Vietnamese then?


Southern barbarians were more of a term describing people in Yunnan and Guangxi, sometimes even Guangdong that were not of Han culture.


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## ChineseTiger1986

S10 said:


> Southern barbarians were more of a term describing people in Yunnan and Guangxi, sometimes even Guangdong that were not of Han culture.


 
Still, the ancient indigenous inhabitants of Guangdong was not Vietnamese.

I saw a lot of ignorant North Chinese guys who said that Cantonese looks exactly like Vietnamese. lol, stereotyping does not always represent the truth.


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## Twain Shakespeare

From the emergence of China as a unified state in the third century
B.C. until the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1912, China
stood at the center of an East Asian international system of
remarkable durability. The Chinese Emperor was
conceived of (and recognized by most neighboring states)
as the pinnacle of a universal political hierarchy, with all
other states&#8217; rulers theoretically serving as vassals.

2 Any attempt to understand China&#8217;s
twentieth-century diplomacy or its twenty-first-century world
role must begin&#8212;even at the cost of some potential
oversimplification&#8212;with a basic appreciation of the
traditional context.

--Henry A. Kissinger
New York, January 2011[/QUOTE]

This is why I look forward to the Pax Sinica. We know how China will tend to behave as world hegemon, because, for most of the last two thousand years, they were arguably the hegemon.


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## S10

ChineseTiger1986 said:


> Still, the ancient indigenous inhabitants of Guangdong was not Vietnamese.
> 
> I saw a lot of ignorant North Chinese guys who said that Cantonese looks exactly like Vietnamese. lol, stereotyping does not always represent the truth.


No, &#36234;&#21335; in China means Viet South, so Viet does not actually refer to Vietnamese.

Hell, I've been called a &#21335;&#34542; by some northerners simply because I was from Guangdong. Some of that attitude still persists.


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## pandarunner

S10 said:


> No, &#36234;&#21335; in China means Viet South, so Viet does not actually refer to Vietnamese.
> 
> Hell, I've been called a &#21335;&#34542; by some northerners simply because I was from Guangdong. Some of that attitude still persists.


 
No way, they seriously called you that?

Truly, the history I have learned highlight way too much the superiority of Huaxia while chosing to count other tribes' ingenious cultural creation as genes of Huaxia. Thereafter quite a few Han Chinese know nothing about what other tribes have done in acient times, let alone appreciate.

When I meet some ultra Han Chinese on a forum, I usually call myself a &#26970;&#34542; though I am Han Chinese from Hunan.
They just need to go back to school and find themselves a good teacher.


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## siegecrossbow

S10 said:


> No, &#36234;&#21335; in China means Viet South, so Viet does not actually refer to Vietnamese.
> 
> Hell, I've been called a &#21335;&#34542; by some northerners simply because I was from Guangdong. Some of that attitude still persists.


 
Call them &#38801;&#23376; next time they do that.


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## milvipes

&#21335;&#34542; usually refers to Tibeto-Burman tribes such as &#24413;&#26063; and some times Hmong-Mienh (&#33495;&#34542&#12290;&#22839; originally meant other Sino-Tibetan peoples who shared the Central Plain with Sinitic tribes, but later became associated with Kra-Dai peoples (Thai, Zhuang, Laos, etc.). &#36234; could be either Khmer-Viet or Kra-Dai. &#36234; is probably the single most significant non-Sinitic genetic influence among southern Han people.


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## Peter

siegecrossbow said:


> Call them &#38801;&#23376; next time they do that.


 
During the Yuan Dynasty, when the Chinese people were suffer under horse hoof of Mongolians - thousands of Chineses fled South to Vietnam and (begged) asked for &#20511;&#23487; from the King of Tran Dynasty ( &#38515;&#26397; 1225-1400). Together with Tran Dynasty's army they all fought against the Mongolian invasion sucessfully 3 times. Vietnamese soldiers did tatoo 2 words: "&#27578;&#38851;" on their arm as a sign of "fight to the death" to protect their beloved Vietnam. 

Not just the Yuan Dynasty that Chineses fled to the south entering Vietnam, but during the Qing Dynasty as well. Vietnam had came to aid and help Chineses during those wartimes when Chineses lost their country, families, husbands, wives, children etc ... Yet, because of the rich natural resources in Southeast Asia Sea now that tension between the countries has risen in verbal-war from members of both China and Vietnam! 

How sad, is it!?

Like Oriental people have said that it is easy to share everything when people are all poor, but to fight for everything when people are all getting rich.

What do you all learn from history?

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## S10

Peter said:


> During the Yuan Dynasty, when the Chinese people were suffer under horse hoof of Mongolians - thousands of Chineses fled South to Vietnam and (begged) asked for &#20511;&#23487; from the King of Tran Dynasty ( &#38515;&#26397; 1225-1400). Together with Tran Dynasty's army they all fought against the Mongolian invasion sucessfully 3 times. Vietnamese soldiers did tatoo 2 words: "&#27578;&#38851;" on their arm as a sign of "fight to the death" to protect their beloved Vietnam.
> 
> Not just the Yuan Dynasty that Chineses fled to the south entering Vietnam, but during the Qing Dynasty as well. Vietnam had came to aid and help Chineses during those wartimes when Chineses lost their country, families, husbands, wives, children etc ... Yet, because of the rich natural resources in Southeast Asia Sea now that tension between the countries has risen in verbal-war from members of both China and Vietnam!
> 
> How sad, is it!?
> 
> Like Oriental people have said that it is easy to share everything when people are all poor, but to fight for everything when people are all getting rich.
> 
> What do you all learn from history?


Times change and enemies change. Mongolia isn't trying to claim a bunch of islands in dispute, Vietnam is. Mongolia as of today is harmless to the Chinese, but I can't say the same for Vietnam.


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## no_name

I had intended to post this in the &#20013;&#22269;&#21516;&#32990;&#20204;&#30475;&#36807;&#26469; thread but apparently it has been closed. 

I found this nice blog-thread that discuss China from a geo-political and historical point of view (in chinese, sorry). It has a total of 400+ pages currently and I'm past 150 mark. 

Please ignore the original topic of the thread because it eventually goes alot broader than discussing the topic issue:

Ó¡¶ÈÓëÖÐ¹úµÄµØÔµÇé¿ö¶Ô±È£¨¶àÍ¼£© / ±ÉÊÓÇÀÉ³·¢µÄ / µÚ1Ò³-[ÌìÑÄ]


----------



## gpit

Peter said:


> That doesn't make sense! If the South only possessed preliminary technologies such as planting rice in paddy fields, etc ... then what is the "Southern Barbarians" meant? Barbarians are such as "*planting rice in paddy fields*" people?


 
You must view this in an evolved way.

in 10,000 years ago, paddy planting was advanced technology, but not so a couple thousand years ago.

Just as nobody denies G Washington was a great person, but he is still a slave owner: a criminal behavior as viewed today.

Paddy planting maybe an important part of an early civilization, but as the society evolves, it becomes less and less important. Instead, political systems, humanity development, trade, military, education, etc. take more and more weight of a civilization.



Peter said:


> Isn't it, "barbarian" - an individual reference to a brutal, cruel, warlike, insensitive person?



Barbarian is a simplified translation of Chinese &#22839;, &#34542;, etc. In fact one theory goes that Emperor Huang (Yellow Emperor), an ancestor of Han Chinese, was actually an Eastern &#22839;. As history evolves, those names were used to describe those *less civilized* peripheral areas.


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## S10

siegecrossbow said:


> Call them &#38801;&#23376; next time they do that.


I would have done it if I wasn't half Manchu. My father side is Manchu from Heilongjiang and my mother's side is from Hunan.


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## Peter

S10 said:


> I would have done it if I wasn't half Manchu. My father side is Manchu from Heilongjiang and my mother's side is from Hunan.


 
So, nowadays Chineses were not pure native Chinese (Bai Yue ?) either due to the Mongolian and Machurian's invasion.

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## Peter

gpit said:


> You must view this in an evolved way.
> 
> in 10,000 years ago, paddy planting was advanced technology, but not so a couple thousand years ago.



Do you even have any written China history recording 10,000 years back, yet to discuss about paddy planting and how advance or not it was?



gpit said:


> Just as nobody denies G Washington was a great person, but he is still a slave owner: a criminal behavior as viewed today.



That is irrelavent!




gpit said:


> Paddy planting maybe an important part of an early civilization, but as the society evolves, it becomes less and less important. Instead, political systems, humanity development, trade, military, education, etc. take more and more weight of a civilization.



It was not the same point of discussion from the statement: "*the South only possessed preliminary technologies such as planting rice in paddy fields, etc ... *"

It was the point that Central Land "&#20013;&#21407;" had viewed lands from 4 directions were: &#26481;&#22839;&#12289;&#21335;&#34875;&#12289;&#35199;&#25102;&#12289;&#21271;&#29380;... 



gpit said:


> Barbarian is a simplified translation of Chinese &#22839;, &#34542;, etc. In fact one theory goes that Emperor Huang (Yellow Emperor), an ancestor of Han Chinese, was actually an Eastern &#22839;. As history evolves, those names were used to describe those *less civilized* peripheral areas.



Emperor Huang (Yellow Emperor) is a Myth. There is no fact can be proven so that he was actually an Eastern &#22839;or not. Therefore, your explaination is less pursuasive, however.

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## S10

Peter said:


> So, nowadays Chineses were not pure native Chinese (Bai Yue ?) either due to the Mongolian and Machurian's invasion.


LOL! By the end of Han dynasty, most tribes in Baiyue had become part of the Han identity. Mongols and Jurchen did not show up until 900 years later. There is no such thing as pure blood Chinese. Even Qin empire was considered to be barbarian. It's culture that unites us.

PS: 99.9% of Manchu today cannot speak their own native language. They are no different than Han, myself included.

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## ChineseTiger1986

S10 said:


> LOL! By the end of Han dynasty, most tribes in Baiyue had become part of the Han identity. Mongols and Jurchen did not show up until 900 years later. There is no such thing as pure blood Chinese. Even Qin empire was considered to be barbarian. It's culture that unites us.
> 
> PS: 99.9% of Manchu today cannot speak their own native language. They are no different than Han, myself included.


 
Still, we are mostly the direct descendants of the Proto-Sino-Tibetan, our gene marker is predominantly O3A, which is shared by both modern Han and modern Tibetan.

Unlike other East Asians whose gene markers are mostly O2 or O1, because they are not the true descendants of the Proto-Sino-Tibetan like Han and Tibetan.

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## no_name

Peter said:


> So, nowadays Chineses were not pure native Chinese (Bai Yue ?) either due to the Mongolian and Machurian's invasion.


 
The chinese identity is constantly evolving. But I'll say the changes to mogolian and manchurian part is larger, if you simply compare the population ratio.

Just like you can't really pin down what white (as in european) american stock today is really composed of.

ps. Chinese identity is cultural rather than purely racial. The day china loses her cultural heritage is when she falls apart because then people start to focus on the ethnic aspect, this won't be allowed to happen and chinese characteristics will be in everything china do. We won't simply follow anyone's system directly.

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## ChineseTiger1986

no_name said:


> The chinese identity is constantly evolving. But I'll say the changes to mogolian and manchurian part is larger, if you simply compare the population ratio.
> 
> Just like you can't really pin down what white (as in european) american stock today is really composed of.
> 
> ps. Chinese identity is cultural rather than purely racial. The day china loses her cultural heritage is when she falls apart because then people start to focus on the ethnic aspect, this won't be allowed to happen and chinese characteristics will be in everything china do. We won't simply follow anyone's system directly.


 
The majority of the Han Chinese are still descended from ancient Proto-Sino-Tibetan stock, this is for sure.


----------



## Peter

ChineseTiger1986 said:


> Still, we are mostly the direct descendants of the Proto-Sino-Tibetan, our gene marker is predominantly O3A, which is shared by both modern Han and modern Tibetan.
> 
> Unlike other East Asians whose gene markers are mostly O2 or O1, because they are not the true descendants of the Proto-Sino-Tibetan like Han and Tibetan.


 
Are you sure? 

Have you read this article: "_*Genetic relationship of populations in China*_" from the Nation Academy of Sciences, USA, Vol.95 issue 20, Sep 29, 1998?

Genetic relationship of populations in China



> CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
> 
> Validation of the utility of microsatellites in reconstructing evolutionary history of human populations has been made not only theoretically (20&#8211;23) but also empirically; the relationships based on microsatellites are generally consistent with morphological and paleontological evidence and other types of genetic markers (8&#8211;10). However, many of such studies used distantly related populations and, therefore, the utility of such markers in the study of closely related populations is yet to be explored. The current study reflects, to some extend, a lack of resolution of microsatellites in the reconstruction of closely related populations, probably because of an insufficient number of loci and a large number of populations studied but less likely because of the insufficient number of samples for each population as demonstrated by Shriver et al. (20). This is so because the variance of the genetic distance between loci is much larger than the variance due to sampling error (20) in the estimation of genetic distance. Small bootstrap values reflect insufficient amount of information available to resolve the genetic relationship among closely related populations in the presence of strong gene flow among those populations. But the employment of a much larger number of microsatellite loci in the current analysis may not guarantee a better resolution under such a scenario. Nevertheless, it is not our primary intention to reveal the detailed genetic relationship among those closely related populations, rather we are interested in exploring the major pattern of evolutionary history of the human populations currently residing in East Asia.
> 
> In both phylogenies with different loci and populations, populations from East Asia always derived from a single lineage, indicating the single origin of those populations. It does not preclude the possibility of an independent origin of modern humans in East Asia, but its contribution to the extant populations is not detectable in this analysis. It is now probably safe to conclude that modern humans originating in Africa constitute the majority of the current gene pool in East Asia. A phylogeny with very different topological structure would have been expected if an independent Asian origin of modern human had made a major contribution to the current gene pool in Asian populations. Since the methods employed in this analysis can detect only major genetic contribution from particular sources, a haplotype-based analysis will probably detect minor contribution from an independent origin of modern humans in East Asia (24, 25).
> 
> *In contrast with previous studies (2&#8211;4) where distinction between southern and northern populations was clear, our current analysis showed that northern populations belong to two different groups, although statistical support was still weak.* One noticeable difference in our study is the employment in the phylogeny reconstruction of the neighbor-joining method, which is supposedly more robust in the presence of genetic admixture. The use of microsatellites, a different type of genetic markers from previous studies, and the measures of genetic distance introduced further complication. *However, the northern populations in cluster N2 were sampled from the southwestern part of China, except for Ewenki, where genetic admixture with the southern population was more likely to occur. This might explain why this group of northern populations clustered with southern populations.*
> 
> *Another noticeable feature from this analysis is that the linguistic boundaries are often transgressed across the six language families studied (Sino-Tibetan, Daic, Hmong-Mien, Austro-Asiatic, Altaic, and Austronesian). Such a phenomenon is even more pronounced among southern populations, where populations from the same geographic regions tend to cluster in the phylogeny (see Fig. &#8203;Fig.11B). This observation is consistent with the history of Chinese populations, where population migrations were substantial.*
> 
> The current analysis suggests that the southern populations in East Asia may be derived from the populations in Southeast Asia that originally migrated from Africa, possibly via mid-Asia, and the northern populations were under strong genetic influences from Altaic populations from the north. But it is unclear how Altaic populations migrated to Northeast Asia. It is possible that ancestral Altaic populations arrived there from middle Asia, or alternatively they may have originated from East Asia.
> 
> *The analyses of metric and nonmetric cranial traits of modern and prehistoric Siberian and Chinese populations showed that Siberians are closer to Northern Chinese and Mongolian than European (26, 27). The same notion holds for the facial flatness (26&#8211;28). European populations did not appear in Siberia, western Mongolia, and China until the Neolithic and Bronze Age (26, 27, 29, 30). Furthermore, cranial and dental analyses have linked the Arctic peoples, Buryat and east Asians with American Indians (31&#8211;35), which arrived through Beringia (Bering land bridge) somewhere between 15,000 and 30,000 years ago (36). These observations are generally consistent with the genetic evidence based on this research and mitochondrial DNA data (37&#8211;40). Therefore, it is more likely that ancestors of Altaic-speaking populations originated from an East Asian population that was originally derived from Southeast Asia, although the current Altaic-speaking populations undeniably admixed with later arrivers from mid-Asia and Europe (see Fig. &#8203;Fig.2,2, thin solid lines). The possibility of early northern route migration from mid-Asia to Siberia is doubtful, given the fact that the last glacier started to recede only 15,000 years ago (see Fig. &#8203;Fig.2,2, dashed lines).*
> 
> This conclusion can be tested by using simple inductive logic. If the ancestral Altaic-speaking population was of northern origin, the genetic relationship of extant populations should follow the phylogeny presented in the bottom of Fig. &#8203;Fig.3.3. The phylogeny generated in the current study apparently supports the upper phylogeny of Fig. &#8203;Fig.3.3. In this analysis, Altaic populations are represented by Buryat and Yakut. Southern Chinese populations are those populations from Yunnan and Taiwan that reportedly did not have any admixture with Altaic populations. Populations from Middle Asia were not available to this study.
> 
> Figure 3
> 
> Phylogenetic relationships of worldwide populations under two hypotheses; see text for discussion.
> 
> Now that we have established that populations in East Asia were subjected to genetic contributions from multiple sources: Southeast Asia, Altaic from northeast Asia, and mid-Asia or Europe. It would be interesting to estimate relative contributions from each source. Unfortunately, the current study involved only mostly minority populations. A study involving populations across the country is necessary to reveal such a picture.

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## ChineseTiger1986

Peter said:


> Are you sure?
> 
> Have you read this article: "_*Genetic relationship of populations in China*_" from the Nation Academy of Sciences, USA, Vol.95 issue 20, Sep 29, 1998?
> 
> Genetic relationship of populations in China


 
It is perfectly normal that the Northern Chinese got more admixture with the Altaic population than the Southern Chinese.

However, i pointed out before that we are still the majority carriers of the O3A gene markers just like the Tibetans.

The Southern Chinese are still far more closely related to the Northern Chinese than it is to the Vietnamese.

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## Peter

ChineseTiger1986 said:


> It is perfectly normal that the Northern Chinese got more admixture with the Altaic population than the Southern Chinese.
> 
> However, i pointed out before that we are still the majority carriers of the O3A gene markers just like the Tibetans.
> 
> The Southern Chinese are still far more closely related to the Northern Chinese than it is to the Vietnamese.


 
More news for you!

Haplogroup O3 (Y-DNA) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia



> *Origins*
> 
> Haplogroup O3 is a descendant haplogroup of haplogroup O. Some researchers believe that it first appeared in China approximately 10,000 years ago. The prehistoric peopling of East Asia by modern humans remains controversial with respect to early population migrations. In a systematic sampling and genetic screening of an East Asian&#8211;specific Y-chromosome haplogroup (O3-M122) in 2,332 individuals from diverse East Asian populations, results indicate that the O3-M122 lineage is dominant in East Asian populations, with an average frequency of 44.3%.
> 
> *Distribution*
> 
> Although Haplogroup O3 appears to be primarily associated with Chinese populations, it also forms a significant component of the Y-chromosome diversity of most modern populations of the East Asian region. *Haplogroup O3 is found in over 50% of all modern Chinese males (with frequency ranging from 30/101 = 29.7% among Pinghua-speaking Hans in Guangxi[8] to 110/148 = 74.3% among Hans in Changting, Fujian[9]), about 40% of Manchu, Korean, and Vietnamese males*, about 33.3%[12] to 62%[13][28] of Filipino males, about 10.5%[22] to 55.6%[22] of Malaysian males, about 10% (4/39 Guide County, Qinghai)[17] to 45% (22/49 Zhongdian County, Yunnan)[5] of Tibetan males, about 20% (10/50 Shuangbai, northern Yunnan)[24] to 44% (8/18 Xishuangbanna, southern Yunnan)[5][6] of Yi males, about 25% of Zhuang[29] and Indonesian[30] males, and about 16%[15][31] to 20%[12] of Japanese males. The distribution of Haplogroup O3 stretches far into Central Asia (approx. 40% of Dungans,[20] 30% of Salars,[18] 28% of Bonan,[18] 24% of Dongxiang,[18] 18% to 22.8%[12] of Mongolians, 12% of Uyghurs,[20] 9% of Kazakhs,[20] 6.2% of Altayans,[32] and 4.1% of Uzbeks[20]) and Oceania (approx. 25%[12] to 32.5%[22] of Polynesians, 18%[12] to 27.4%[22] of Micronesians, and 5% of Melanesians[33]), albeit with reduced frequencies of most subclades. It should be noted that Haplogroup O3* Y-chromosomes, which are not defined by any identified downstream markers, are actually more common among certain non-Han Chinese populations than among Han Chinese ones, and the presence of these O3* Y-chromosomes among various populations of Central Asia, East Asia, and Oceania is more likely to reflect a very ancient shared ancestry of these populations rather than the result of any historical events. It remains to be seen whether Haplogroup O3* Y-chromosomes can be parsed into distinct subclades that display significant geographical or ethnic correlations.

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## gpit

Peter said:


> Do you even have any written China history recording 10,000 years back, yet to discuss about paddy planting and how advance or not it was?



Without a written book you know nothing of 10,000 ago? 



> That is irrelavent!



Yes it is. It shows the evolution of human standards.



> It was not the same point of discussion from the statement: "*the South only possessed preliminary technologies such as planting rice in paddy fields, etc ... *"
> 
> It was the point that Central Land "&#20013;&#21407;" had viewed lands from 4 directions were: &#26481;&#22839;&#12289;&#21335;&#34875;&#12289;&#35199;&#25102;&#12289;&#21271;&#29380;...
> 
> 
> 
> Emperor Huang (Yellow Emperor) is a Myth. There is no fact can be proven so that he was actually an Eastern &#22839;or not. Therefore, your explaination is less pursuasive, however.



You can neither disprove those identities associated with Yellow Emperor in &#21490;&#35760;, or The Records of the Grand Historian, by Sima Qian.



> Records of the Grand Historian - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
> ...
> 
> *Reliability*
> 
> Joseph Needham wrote in 1954 that there were many scholars who doubted that Sima's Records of the Grand Historian contained accurate information about such distant history as the thirty kings of the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600c. 1050 BC). While many scholars argued that Sima could not possibly have had access to written materials which detailed history a millennium before his age, Needham has another conclusion. *The discovery of oracle bones at an excavation of the Shang Dynasty capital at Anyang (Yinxu) matched twenty-three of the thirty Shang kings that Sima listed. Needham writes that this remarkable archaeological find proves that Sima Qian "did have fairly reliable materials at his disposala fact which underlines once more the deep historical-mindedness of the Chinese."[2]*
> 
> In The Terracotta Warriors by John Man, the bias in Sima Qian's epic is deconstructed. Man argues that, due to personal circumstances, including his own punishment by castration, Sima wrote favorably about the preceding emperors in order to discredit the contemporary emperor, and to make that emperor's reforms seem incompetent[citation needed].
> 
> The first annal records the Five Emperors period. *With the exception of a brief mention of Shennong/Yandi, Sima Qian excluded the Three Sovereigns preceding the Five Emperors as he admitted his sources were unreliable.* Why he considered his sources to the Five Emperors reliable is a mystery as many earlier works such as the Book of Rites and Songs of Chu contradict each other regarding this period. Sima also removed descriptions of supernatural powers or physiology associated with these legendary culture heroes which has led to criticism[who?] that he turned deities into historical rulers.
> 
> ...



Thus, Shima Qian was a very serious scholar, not like current day's big mouths that can flip tongues number of times within a short period of time. That's how his works stand for thousands of years of tests. 

With the absence of other evidence that disproves Yellow Emperor an Eastern &#22839;, The Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian can be considered as "*Preponderance of the Evidence*", though not "Beyond a Reasonable Doubt".


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## Peter

gpit said:


> Without a written book you know nothing of 10,000 ago?



That's why! Do you have that written book? 




gpit said:


> Yes it is. It shows the evolution of human standards.



What're human standards, from innocent to sinful?




gpit said:


> You can neither disprove those identities associated with Yellow Emperor in &#21490;&#35760;, or The Records of the Grand Historian, by Sima Qian.
> 
> Thus, Shima Qian was a very serious scholar, not like current day's big mouths that can flip tongues number of times within a short period of time. That's how his works stand for thousands of years of tests.



Sima Qian did not have physical records of Yellow Emperor either. 

Thus, Sima Qian was like current day's big mouths that could flip tongues number of times within a short period of time.

Prove it then, if you have any physical evidences of Yellow Emperor ...



gpit said:


> With the absence of other evidence that disproves Yellow Emperor an Eastern &#22839;, The Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian can be considered as "*Preponderance of the Evidence*", though not "Beyond a Reasonable Doubt".


 
Like you have quoted the physical evidence of: * The discovery of oracle bones at an excavation of the Shang Dynasty capital at Anyang (Yinxu) matched twenty-three of the thirty Shang kings that Sima listed. Needham writes that this remarkable archaeological find proves that Sima Qian "did have fairly reliable materials at his disposala fact which underlines once more the deep historical-mindedness of the Chinese."[2]*

So, there is fact about Shang Dynasty. Fine. However, is there any discovery of oracle bones about Yellow Emperor?

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## milvipes

I don't know where to post this, so I decided to put it here.
I've always wondered why Mongols in China tend to speak better Mandarin than some southern Han. After all, the Altaic language family has almost nothing in common with Sino-Tibetan languages, so it should be harder for the Mongols to master Mandarin than for Cantonese people. Perhaps it's because the Mongols were part of Qing ruling elites, and proficiency in Mandarin (the official language) was viewed as to "fit in" with their fellow nobilities.

I'm asking this because I'm the only Mandarin (and Min-nan) speaking Chinese in Queretaro, Mexico. I can't believe so many fellow Han would have a harder time mastering another Han dialect than some Altaic &#8220;&#38851;&#23376;&#8221;&#12290;

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## S10

milvipes said:


> I don't know where to post this, so I decided to put it here.
> I've always wondered why Mongols in China tend to speak better Mandarin than some southern Han. After all, the Altaic language family has almost nothing in common with Sino-Tibetan languages, so it should be harder for the Mongols to master Mandarin than for Cantonese people. Perhaps it's because the Mongols were part of Qing ruling elites, and proficiency in Mandarin (the official language) was viewed as to "fit in" with their fellow nobilities.
> 
> I'm asking this because I'm the only Mandarin (and Min-nan) speaking Chinese in Queretaro, Mexico. I can't believe so many fellow Han would have a harder time mastering another Han dialect than some Altaic &#38851;&#23376;&#12290;


While I'm not Mongolian, my grandmother's side of the family are Manchus, thus qualifying them as &#38801;&#23376;. However, since my great grandfather, no one in the family knew a single word of Manchu language. They speak nothing but mandarin and in my case, Mandarin and Cantonese. The story told was that the family feared for their lives after the Qing dynasty was overthrown since Hans might decide to pay Manchus a little revenge, so the entire family took Han names and gave up everything Manchu.


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## pandarunner

S10 said:


> While I'm not Mongolian, my grandmother's side of the family are Manchus, thus qualifying them as &#38801;&#23376;. However, since my great grandfather, no one in the family knew a single word of Manchu language. They speak nothing but mandarin and in my case, Mandarin and Cantonese. The story told was that the family feared for their lives after the Qing dynasty was overthrown since Hans might decide to pay Manchus a little revenge, so the entire family took Han names and gave up everything Manchu.


Isn't &#38801;&#23376; a derogatory term?
I thought the modern Mandaris the Beijing dialect mixed with Manchu language, and Manchu language share a lot words with Mongolian, so it should be much easier for Mongols to speak Mandarin fluently.

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## no_name

&#38801;&#23376; came from Tartars


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## LetsGetRowdy

no_name said:


> ps. Chinese identity is cultural rather than purely racial. *The day china loses her cultural heritage is when she falls apart* because then people start to focus on the ethnic aspect, this won't be allowed to happen and chinese characteristics will be in everything china do. We won't simply follow anyone's system directly.


 
I feel that is already happening due to globalism.


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## milvipes

ChinaVietnam said:


> I feel that is already happening due to globalism.


Globalization isn't all bad. The problem is that the post-modern Anglosphere alone is calling the shot.
Ideally, I would like to see multiple global trend setters, instead of a single big shot choosing which race/culture is fully "human", be that the US, China, or India.

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## no_name

Globalization does not have to entail lost of local heritage. This is not an either/or option. It's only made to look that way by parties with interests.


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## milvipes

Playing devil's advocate here: ancient China was once a cultural hegemon (much like the US today). And today's mass media will only make the job even easier for a resurgent China.
While we should not allow the US to remain as the sole global cultural hegemon, China should not seek to supplant the US as the next global cultural hegemon, as any form of hegemony is bad.

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## oct605032048

hegemony brings order which is a need of people.


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## hejsansvejsan

I know this is rather off topic. But I tried to start a new thread and for some reason I could not do that although I was logged in. So I will gladly move this subject to a new thread if someone could help me.
Anyway I am most curious what our Chinese friends think of the way China has treated Ai Weiwei.


Ai Weiwei back in communication on Twitter - Telegraph

Ai Weiwei back in communication on Twitter

The Chinese dissident artist Ai Weiwei broke a month-long silence on Sunday, posting photographs of his weight on Twitter. 

By Our Foreign Staff 

6:18PM BST 07 Aug 2011
Mr Ai was one of China's most vitriolic activists until his sudden disappearance in April but has been mute since his release from detention, explaining that the terms of his bail do not allow him to speak out.


However, on Sunday he took to the internet, via his Twitter page @aiww, to inform his followers that he had enjoyed a modest Sunday lunch. "Lunch 10 dumplings, body weight regains 3kg," he wrote.


Mr Ai dropped a considerable amount of weight while in jail but otherwise appeared healthy. He also posted a photograph showing a scale reading 97kg (214lb).


Another message read: "Five cloves of garlic". 


Meanwhile, Mr Ai also set up an account on the new Google social networking service, describing himself, tongue firmly-in-cheek, as "suspected pornography enthusiast and tax evader".
He also posted a number of black and white photos from his time in New York City in the 1980s and early '90s.

Mr Ai has accepted an offer to join the Berlin University of the Arts as a visiting lecturer, but it is not clear when or if he will be permitted to leave China.


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## mil-avia

*Article about traditional Chinese Science and Medicine by a foreign writer*


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## oceanx

milvipes said:


> Playing devil's advocate here: ancient China was once a cultural hegemon (much like the US today). And today's mass media will only make the job even easier for a resurgent China.
> While we should not allow the US to remain as the sole global cultural hegemon, China should not seek to supplant the US as the next global cultural hegemon, as any form of hegemony is bad.



A man (I presume) after my own heart. In my mind, China's cultural decline began right after 221 BCE, after that semi-"barbaric" hegemon from Western China reigned supreme. Fifteen years of tyranny and the damage is ongoing ... 

Yes, yes, the terra cota army is a fine collection ... 

Without competition there is no progress.

Without a heart there is no use "winning" the competition.

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## no_name

^^^^ That's oversimplified. And there are plenty of time periods after that when China's society is very vibrant.

There are also plenty competition with her neighbours.

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## oceanx

That I "oversimplified" I acknowledge.

Nevetheless, milvipes got it more or less close to the mark.


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## oceanx

oct605032048 said:


> hegemony brings order which is a need of people.



Any Chinese person _instinctively_ appreciates the "necessity" of the _Leviathan_.

Make no mistake, I don't blame most ills of China on the hegemon(s) of yore, and nor am I quick to fault the "benign hegemon" of our day.

Personally, I rather have an "aristocratic" hegemon who at least strives to be impartial, rather than a scheming hegemon who meddles everywhere while marketing its brand as "benign" ...

Anyway, I have not yet reconciled all of my own "cognitive dissonances" on this topic. So I must say no more.

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## Twain Shakespeare

Monotheism is an intellectually flawed system, and most monotheistic cults are designed as a means of controlling people by making them stupid.
Polytheism, at least these days is best represented by Hinduism, whose world view is dominated by the fact it is too hot or too wet to work most of the year, so one might as well stare at ones navel and enjoy the hallucinations that come from starving, and call THAT virtuous.
China, on the other hand, may have the sanest culture on Earth. Even its Capitalist seem to understand that one cannot simply loot forever, unlike the global kleptocrats


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## Twain Shakespeare

If you are ever visiting El Paso, or even Juarez, let me know


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## Twain Shakespeare

milvipes said:


> Playing devil's advocate here: ancient China was once a cultural hegemon (much like the US today). And today's mass media will only make the job even easier for a resurgent China.
> While we should not allow the US to remain as the sole global cultural hegemon, China should not seek to supplant the US as the next global cultural hegemon, as any form of hegemony is bad.



From the emergence of China as a unified state in the third century
B.C. until the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1912, China
stood at the center of an East Asian international system of
remarkable durability. The Chinese Emperor was
conceived of (and recognized by most neighboring states)
as the pinnacle of a universal political hierarchy, with all
other states&#8217; rulers theoretically serving as vassals.

2 Any attempt to understand China&#8217;s
twentieth-century diplomacy or its twenty-first-century world
role must begin&#8212;even at the cost of some potential
oversimplification&#8212;with a basic appreciation of the
traditional context.

--Henry A. Kissinger
New York, January 2011[/QUOTE]

The concept of "Danegeld" is central to my understanding of Chinese Imperia policy. In England, protection money or Dane geld was payed to the Vikings (Danes) to keep them from looting and conquering. The Danes looted and conquered anywayl It formed a basic attitude off all Anglo governments since, that, "once you pay Danegeld, you never get rid of the Dane!"
China, on the other hand, used the imperial largesse it "paid for protection," to make the people on the fringe dependent on China. It mostly seems to have worked, aside from Gheghis Khan and the Manchus, and that is not a bad record.
This is demonstrated most by that genius who became the #1 Slave and the Mongols by teaching them how to collect taxes instead of killing everyone, like they had to do in those lunatic monotheists states. Anglos think it is better to be dead than a slave. I prefer a broader range of choices.
For these reasons, I look forward to the Pax Sinica. We know how China will tend to behave as world hegemon, because, for most of the last two thousand years, they were arguably the hegemon


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## mil-avia

*The Propensity of Things: Toward a History of Efficacy in China / Francois Jullien :*





---------- Post added at 02:28 AM ---------- Previous post was at 02:26 AM ----------

*Detour and Access: Strategies of Meaning in China and Greece / Francois Jullien :*





---------- Post added at 02:29 AM ---------- Previous post was at 02:28 AM ----------

*A Treatise on Efficacy: Between Western and Chinese Thinking / Francois Jullien :*

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## mil-avia

*End of Whose History? / op-ed written by a scholar of Pakistani origin*


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## mil-avia

*In Praise of Blandness: Proceeding from Chinese Thought and Aesthetics / François Jullien :*






*In Praise of Shadows / Junichiro Tanizaki :*

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## mil-avia

*About Chinese, Roman and other civilizations*


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## mil-avia

*Mahuan's Account of the Kingdom of Bengala (Bengal)

Another link / Related entries in online encyclopaedia.*


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## Greater China

*New Section of Great Wall Discovered in Mongolia*

26 Feb 2012







*An explorer has discovered a previously uncharted section of the Great Wall "marooned" in the deserts of Mongolia, the first part of the wall believed to have been found outside China.*

William Lindesay led an expedition into the Gobi desert last Autumn in search of a wall that had been lost for almost a thousand years.

What he found was that a section of the Great Wall, last recorded in a 12th century atlas of Genghis Khan&#8217;s battles, still stands.

&#8220;We reached it on the middle of the second day,&#8221; he said. &#8220;We found a wall that was around shin-high. But as we followed it for ten minutes, we came over a rise and there was a wonderful section, taller than my shoulders and stretching for several hundred feet,&#8221; he said.

The news of his discovery is likely to cause a sensation in China and will be published next month as the lead story in the country&#8217;s National Geographic magazine.

The section of the wall he discovered runs for around 62 miles, built from a mash of earth and branches of &#8220;saksoul&#8221;, a local shrub. 

Mr Lindesay arrived in China in 1986 to make a 1,530-mile journey, by foot, along the remnants of the Great Wall. He has been researching and conserving the wall ever since and was awarded an OBE for his work in 2006.

&#8220;I have been looking at this area since 1997, when a friend gave me a copy of an atlas showing the red lines of Genghis Khan&#8217;s attacks and counter-attacks, and underneath those are the strands of wall,&#8221; he said.

However, when he began making enquiries about sections of wall in Mongolia, he was repeatedly told that no structures had survived.

Eventually a Dutch historian mentioned a retired Mongolian geographer, Professor Baasan Tudevin, who had travelled extensively through the Gobi desert.

&#8220;The problem was that we could not find him. Eventually, as a last resort, we put a notice in the newspaper. And a couple of hours later, he turned up, wearing all the medals he had been awarded for his work. He told us there were various structures in the desert, and we could look for them using Google Earth,&#8221; he said.

After spotting what looked like a &#8220;black pen line&#8221;, an expedition was mounted, and the Mongolian government granted them permits to explore the region, which lies in a sensitive border area.

&#8220;It is an intimidating stretch of territory,&#8221; said Mr Lindesay. &#8220;We had two Landcruisers, with 60 litres of spare petrol for each and 200 litres of water. The Gobi means &#8220;flat and stony&#8221; and often that was the landscape.

Mr Lindesay believes this section of the wall may originally have been built in the Han dynasty, around 120BC, in a bid to defend the area against the Xiongnu, a federation of nomad warriors that China had been battling.

Carbon testing on the samples that the team brought back, however, dated the wall to the 11th or 12th centuries. Mr Lindesay believes the wall may have been rebuilt either by Genghis Khan&#8217;s third son, Ogedei Khan, to stop gazelles migrating into China, or by the Western Xia dynasty, which was obliterated by Genghis Khan&#8217;s armies.

&#8220;We definitely need more research,&#8221; he said. &#8220;We are already planning another trip.&#8221;

Telegraph

---

*China finishes sequencing Genghis Khan descendant's genome

China said Sunday that it has finished sequencing the genome of a direct descendant of Genghis Khan.*

In 1206, a man known as Temujen was crowned Genghis Khan. His mounted Mongol army swept out of the steppes of Asia in an apocalyptic wave to conquer two-thirds of the known world, the Royal Alberta Museum said.

Zhou Huanmin, project leader and head of the biological research lab at the Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, said Sunday that this was the first individual genome sequencing of a Mongolian, Xinhua reported.

The blood donator was a male only identified as one of Genghis Khan's 34th-generation offspring from the Sunit tribe, which is based in Inner Mongolia's Xilingol prefecture.

Zhou said the research team will continue to sequence the genomes of another 199 ethnic Mongolians and build a database consisting of Mongolian genetic codes.

Zhou said the results of the genome mapping are important for the detection of ethnicity-specific genome inheritances and the evolutionary features of Mongolians, and will also contribute to medical research linked to the control of certain diseases.

There are about 10 million ethnic Mongolians living around the world, mainly in China's Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang Uyghur autonomous regions and Qinghai province, as well as Mongolia and Russia.

IANS

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## Greater China

*The Boxer Rebellion and the U.S. Navy, 1900-1901*






The origins of anti-Western attitudes in China are difficult to trace, but widespread dislike by the population at large goes back to at least the Opium War between Britain and China (1839-1842). These feelings worsened over the course of the 19th century as Western colonial powers, as well as Russia and Japan, negotiated for, leased, and even seized portions of the Chinese Empire. Following the 1895 Sino-Japanese War, several European powers secured territorial and commercial concessions from China, including the 1897 seizure of Kiaochow and Tsingtao by Imperial Germany. This intervention precipitated a new wave of even bolder efforts to force concessions from China, further exacerbating tensions.

Anti-foreign sentiment resulted in the rapid growth of a Chinese secret society (which had existed for centuries) known as the I Ho Ch'uan (Righteous Harmonious Fists), but referred to by the Westerners as `Boxers.' The Boxers called for the expulsion of the `foreign devils' and their Chinese Christian converts. The society stressed the ritualistic use of the martial arts and traditional Chinese weapons. Anti-foreign incidents, including the burning of homes and businesses, increased dramatically in 1898 and 1899, and was primarily directed at Chinese Christians. The number of killings by the Boxers continued to grow, and on 30 December 1899 included a British missionary. Western governments lodged strong protests with the Chinese Dowager Empress, Tzu Hsi. She responded on 11 January 1900, with a declaration that the Boxers represented a segment of Chinese society, and should not be labeled a criminal organization. Her unenthusiastic support for the Chinese Army's attempts at quelling the violence and the influence of Boxer sympathizers at the Imperial court, led Western governments to deploy military forces on the Chinese coast to protect their citizens and interests.

By spring 1900, Boxer violence was virtually unchecked by Chinese authorities. On 30 May, the foreign ministers at Peking (today known as Beijing, but at the time referred to as Pekin) called for troops to protect the legations at Peking. Four hundred and thirty Sailors and Marines (including fifty-six Americans from USS Oregon and USS Newark) from eight countries arrived at the legations on 31 May and 4 June. On 9 June, the Boxers began attacking foreign property in Peking, and the senior foreign minister, Great Britain's Sir Claude MacDonald, requested a sizable relief force just before the telegraph lines were cut.

The first attempt to relieve the foreign legations at Peking consisted of over 2,100 men (mostly Sailors and Marines) from Great Britain, Germany, Russia, France, the United States, Japan, Italy, and Austria. The allied force departed the city of Tientsin on 10 June, under the command of British Admiral Sir Edward Seymour. However, strong Boxer and Imperial Chinese opposition forced Seymour to return his battered column to Tientsin on 22 June. The allied powers worked to assemble a stronger force, and on 5 August 1900, it departed Tientsin with 20,000 men, including 2,000 Americans (over 500 of these were U.S. Navy Sailors and Marines). After fighting two major battles against huge Chinese forces, the relief force reached the foreign legations at Peking on 14 August.

Over the next several months, the forces of the Western powers and Japan in China continued to grow. They completed their occupation of Peking and spread out into the countryside of northern China, breaking up concentrations of Boxers. On 1 February 1901, the Chinese authorities agreed to abolish the Boxer Society, and on 7 September signed the Peace Protocol of Peking with the allied nations, officially ending the Boxer Rebellion.

China suffered a devastating blow to her prestige and power, which allowed foreign nations to consolidate their interests and previous territorial gains. The weakened Chinese state could not interfere in the war (1904-1905) between Russia and Japan that secured Japanese dominance in the Far East.

The United States was able to play a significant role in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion because of the large number of American ships and troops deployed in the Philippines as a result of the US conquest of the islands during the Spanish American War (1898) and subsequent Philippine insurgent activity. In the minds of many American leaders, the Boxer Rebellion reinforced the need to retain control of the Philippines and to maintain a strong presence in the Far East.

history.navy.mil

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## masterofsea

Do those drug gangster still kill people in Juarez?


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## mil-avia

*Eighteenth century Europe had undergone a Sinification and it probably led to the invention of Western aesthetics.*


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## Holmes

i've always wonderd why our ancient trading partner, failed in 1900's. you were fu**ed up by some retarded Portuguese and British and retarded Austrians as well.

Wow we have a comon hatered, a common enemy.

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## no_name

We had a dynasty that was already starting to rot from the inside.

Transition away from dynastic rule was needed.

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## mil-avia

*Counter-actions carried out by ordinary Chinese people in response to state-sponsored terrorism and blackmailing perpetrated by Western powers (and by the Jews) during nineteenth century / from an article by a Bangladeshi origin writer. *

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## Martian2

*China invented chrome-plating technology 2,200 years ago. Germany: 1937. US: 1950.*

5 Things You Didn&#8217;t Know About China&#8217;s Terra-Cotta Army

"5 Things You Didn&#8217;t Know About China&#8217;s Terra-Cotta Army
_Relics from the legendary Chinese archaeological site are now on display in New York. Here's what you need to know._
By Kate Springer | @katespringer | May 4, 2012





_Excavation continues in the largest pit, which is home to the majority of unearthed figures_ (Kate Springer)

While digging a well near Mount Li in Shaanxi, China, in 1974, a farmer stumbled upon one of the greatest archaeological discoveries of the century: the tomb of Qin Shi Huang Di, an emperor who died in 210 BC and was buried with a terracotta entourage. Since then, archaeologists have spent the last 40 years carefully uncovering the life-size warriors from 22 square miles of earth-and-wood pits.

So far, excavations at the Museum of the Terracotta Army, located about 25 miles east of Xian, China, have unearthed about 2,000 of the 6,000 figures thought to exist. Alongside the subterranean armies lie horses, chariots, weaponry &#8212; even acrobats meant to entertain Emperor Qin in death. Scholars say the warriors were buried with China&#8217;s first emperor to protect him in the afterlife, and were never meant to be seen. Today, this &#8220;eighth wonder of the world&#8221; attracts an estimated 2 million tourist per year.





_Up close with one of the terracotta soldiers near Xian, China_ (Kate Springer)

For those who can&#8217;t make it to Xian, a handful of figures are on display in New York City from April 27 to August 26, as the centerpiece of an immersive exhibit in Times Square. The show will feature artifacts dating back to 221 BC, including 10 of the authentic, 6-ft.-tall clay soldiers and their armor. In honor of the exhibit, here are 5 important bits of terracotta trivia:

*1. Preservation Power* *Archeologists have unearthed roughly 40,000 bronze weapons from the terracotta pits. From spears to battle axes, crossbows to arrowheads, these exquisitely made pieces have been preserved with the help of a protective chromium coating. Though both the Germans and Americans invented this chrome-plating technology in 1937 and 1950, respectively, it existed in China 2,200 years ago.*

(article continues)"

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## LetsGetRowdy

If we arent to rise, who is!?

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## eachus

lcloo said:


> How did the Economist and Angus Maddison get their GDP figures from year AD1 to 1900? I doubt there are reliable historical economic data available for most of the countries listed from AD1 to 1700.



before 1700, was kind of rough estimate.
you know the population, city size, technologies they have,
you can draw that picture. 
in AD1, you know a mid size city in China was huge,
a large city in Europe was small, population etc,,, can not compare.
so, for long time ago, there were only 2 houses run on earth. 
to estimate the size of India vs China who was bigger that maybe harder.

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## doidoi2

eachus said:


>



That picture is in fact *FLAWED*. Read the methodology. For some odd reason, India includes all the lands of current day India, but they did not include the lands of current China. 

*India was not one nation back then. They were all separate countries that for some reason this guy decided to clump together. His idea was that if it's India today, it should count as india back then. 

Now this might be forgivable if he measured China in the exact same way. But he chose to minimize China's GDP by including only the respective lands that each dynasty had at that time.

In short, the chart is comparing apples to oranges. Either China's GDP should be significantly higher, or India's historic GDP should be significantly lower.*

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## ao333

doidoi2 said:


> That picture is in fact *FLAWED*. Read the methodology. For some odd reason, India includes all the lands of current day India, but they did not include the lands of current China.
> 
> *India was not one nation back then. They were all separate countries that for some reason this guy decided to clump together. His idea was that if it's India today, it should count as india back then.
> 
> Now this might be forgivable if he measured China in the exact same way. But he chose to minimize China's GDP by including only the respective lands that each dynasty had at that time.
> 
> In short, the chart is comparing apples to oranges. Either China's GDP should be significantly higher, or India's historic GDP should be significantly lower.*



The argument about India is valid, as significant portion of Indian commerce took place in Western India (present day Pakistan and Afghanistan). The reason that both the Capital and successive royal families reside here is because it is the front where foreigners most frequently invade the subcontinent. Examples include the successful attempt by the Mugals and the impending attempt by Alexander the Great. This is similar to how later Chinese dynasties always set up their capitals at or near Beijing to repel Barbarians from the north.

The argument about China, however is invalid, as Xinjiang, Taiwan, Greater Tibet, Greater Mongolia, and Greater Manchuria have all been sparsely populated historically. Furthermore, most of these territories were acquired by the Yuan and Qing dynasties which did not belong to the muddled "Chinese" entity prior, to the 1400s. Lastly, the nomadic nature of these sparsely populated regions, resulted in low commercial value, contributing to less than 10% of the headcount and significantly lower per capita output compared to China proper, which enjoyed organized agriculture and services provided by state and local enterprises.

In general, the figure for China is accurate. The data for India, may be inaccurate depending on the audience. If Pakistanis believe that they are part of the "India" statistic, then the figure is correct. If they do not, then the Indian figure may need adjustment. You will never get a revision, nevertheless as the entire Indian subcontinent has been referred to as "India" by convention, just like how Hong Kong and Taiwan are always referred to on a state level equivalent to China.

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## Martian2

Self-delete. Double post. Computer glitch.


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## Martian2

*Xinjiang has been Chinese territory for the last 2,000 years*

The Han Dynasty exercised sovereignty over Xinjiang.

----------

Xinjiang - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"In the 2nd century BC, Han China sent Zhang Qian as an envoy to the states in the region, beginning several decades of struggle between the Xiongnu and Han China over dominance of the region, eventually ending in Chinese success. *In 60 BC Han China established the Protectorate of the Western Regions (&#35199;&#22495;&#37117;&#35703;&#24220 at Wulei (&#28879;&#22744;; near modern Luntai) to oversee the entire region as far west as the Pamir. Tarim Basin was under the influence and control of the Han dynasty.*"

Govt. White Papers - china.org.cn

"*The Xiongnu entered Xinjiang mainly around 176 B.C. The Han was one of the earliest peoples to settle in Xinjiang.*

In 101 B.C., the Han empire began to station garrison troops to open up wasteland for cultivation of farm crops in Luntai (Bügür), Quli and some other places. Later, it sent troops to all other parts of Xinjiang for the same purpose. All the garrison reclamation points became the early settlements of the Han people after they entered Xinjiang. Since the Western Regions Frontier Command was established in 60 B.C., the inflow of the Han people to Xinjiang, including officials, soldiers and merchants, had never stopped."

----------





"two-thousand-year-old Han dynasty watchtower, outside Kuqa (Xinjiang)"

Source: Bradley Mayhew: Travels in Xinjiang

----------





"Han Dynasty Great Wall in the desert.
*
Great Wall in the Desert*

The remnants of Han Dynasty (206 B.C. &#8211; 220 A.D.) Great Wall can be found in the Gobi desert. The section that we will look at is part of a stretch that crossed the desert from Hami to Jiuquan, the Great Wall in this area was made out of layers of reeds and rammed earth and gravel. Two thousand years later, some of the wall remains in reasonable&#8212;but weathered&#8212;condition. The wall here, and the soldiers who garrisoned it, made the area safer for the traders and pilgrims on the Silk Road."

Source: Beijing Hikers - Special Trips

----------





"Ruins of a beacon tower of the Han Dynasty in Lop Nur, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region

As the symbol of the strong politics and economy of the Qin (221 BC - 206 BC) and Han (206 BC - 220) Dynasties, Great Wall of the Qin and Han Dynasties was built on the sites of the northern Great Walls of the Qin, Zhao and Yan States of the Warring States Period (476 BC - 221 BC), stretching for over 6,000 kilometers (3,728 miles) from east to west. Related Intro: Qin Dynasty Great Wall, Han Dynasty Great Wall"

Source: Pictures of China Great Wall in Qin and Han Dynasties

----------

1,700-year-old Han Style Tombs Discovered in Xinjiang : Confucius Online &#8211; Chinese Culture and Chinese Philosophy.

*1,700-year-old Han Style Tombs Discovered in Xinjiang*
By nimeitu on 10/1/2010

Several 1700- year-old Han style tombs were unearthed in Kuqa County of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region at a construction site of an underground business street. This is the first time Han style tombs at that age have been found in Xinjiang.

Comparing with tombs discovered in Jiangsu, Shandong, Shaanxi, Henan and Shanxi provinces, these tombs were identified as being built during the Qiuci Kingdom, between the middle of 3rd century and 4th century.

The discovery of these tombs fills a gaping hole concerning the ancient Qiuci Kingdom. They are significant for researching intimate political, commercial and cultural relationships between the Xiyu (western regions) Areas, the ancient Xinjiang region, and central China.





The corridor and a door of a side room in the No. 1 tomb





The No. 2 tomb, 2.5 meters high





Skeletons discovered in the tomb





Skeletons discovered near the front door of the No. 1 tomb

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## milvipes

eachus said:


>


The opium trade hurt China royally. If drug addiction can bring down a nation within decades, then today's US might not be to far from collapse, despite its present glory.

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## applesauce

milvipes said:


> The opium trade hurt China royally. If drug addiction can bring down a nation within decades, then today's US might not be to far from collapse, despite its present glory.



it wasnt just the drugs, it was the inability of the government as a whole. for instance if the government was competent and won the wars it could have easily cut off the vast majority of the drugs coming into the nation.

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## mil-avia

*Chinese pottery is oldest known: Ice Age ceramics predate agriculture by millennia


*
Ceramics in a Chinese cave date to about 20,000 years ago, making them the oldest known examples of pottery.

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## Obambam

&#37073;&#21644; - Zheng He

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## muse

*Ancient texts uncover meritocracy debate*
By Francesco Sisci

BEIJING - Imagine we were to discover a series of ancient manuscripts revealing that Plato actually copied all of his ideas from _Parmenides_, a preceding philosopher from Elea in southern Italy; that _Aristotle_ rewrote treatises originally penned by _Archytas_, another philosopher from Taranto; and actually the whole philosophical debate in ancient Greece was about politics (a very sensitive subject for the Roman Empire), not truth (a topic more consistent with later widespread Christian beliefs).

The same manuscripts could prove the Romans copied everything they had from the Etruscans, and history was later doctored by Roman emperors to undermine the importance of other Italian
civilizations conquered by Rome and present their home city as the one true representative of culture from Italy, which was then ruling the Mediterranean world.

This discovery would make our heads spin and make us reassess the trajectory of history and all our considerations about the future.

Something similar actually happened in the West in the 18th century with the discovery of the ruins of Pompeii by German historian Johann Joachim Winkelmann, which sparked the fire of Enlightenment. And it is happening in China now possibly on an even grander scale with the discovery and first understanding of three sets of manuscripts buried at the end of the 4th century BC. They cast a totally new light on the history and philosophical debate in ancient China.

The discovery of Pompeii proved to 18th century Europe, which was growing disaffected with Christianity and the Christian tradition, the importance of pagan history and its legacy. It helped to free European minds from the fetters of dogmatism, justified by a superficial reading of the Bible, and launched Europe on the path to developing the modern world. This discovery had a further support with the then immense influence of literature and ideas coming from China through the translations of Jesuits. That literature proved the existence of a non-Christian state with a high level of civilization and yet introduced to Europe through the work of the ultra loyal branch of the Church, the Jesuit order.

*On August 30, 2013, at an international conference organized by Dartmouth College with Beijing's Tsinghua University, participants will discuss the findings from the first work on interpretation of the Tsinghua manuscripts acquired in 2008*.

Three massive sets of bamboo slip manuscripts buried around 300 BC have now been found; one in a tomb in Hubei, in a site next to the capital of the ancient state of Chu; another looted from a tomb and sent to Hong Kong before being bought for the Shanghai Museum.

The Tsinghua University set, also bought back after looting, is probably the most significant because of its historical nature and relationship to several of the Confucian classics. *The manuscripts are written in the script of the Chu state, so many characters are unknown (they are not the standard Chinese characters adopted after the unification under the first Qin emperor), and many others are illegible.*

According to Professor *Sarah Allan, the organizer of the conference at Dartmouth, and along with Tsinghua Professor Li Xueqin one of the main forces behind the reading of the manuscripts, it will take decades to fully understand the material.* The discovery of Pompeii also took decades to be fully understood and internalized by European culture.

In any event, t*here are already quite a few very important findings, according to Professor Allan. The manuscripts revolutionize our understanding of ancient Chinese history, philosophical debate, writing, and circulation of ancient texts. The writing system was standardized by the Qin emperor, who also destroyed much of the traditional literature, so these texts give us a glimpse of what texts were really like before they were reconstructed - in practice often rewritten - in the Han dynasty (the dynasty ruling China from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD).

The writing is in a regional style and has many unique characters, but the spoken language it reflects is similar that that of the central plains. Perhaps there was already a common spoken language, like later Mandarin or today's putonghua. It also appears that ancient texts were not organized in finished sets like the ones we have now, but were more open-ended collections of writings, perhaps transcribed from oral dictation. [1]*

However, *the bigger revelations are about history and philosophical debate. Not much contradicts presently known facts, Professor Allan says, but so much more becomes known that the interpretation may become totally different. It is as if we were just seeing a sweet face and from that we guessed it belonged to a girl, but then the frame expands and we see the body of a person who is clearly a boy.

Li Xueqin just this month made Chinese headlines [2] by arguing that the Qin people (who unified the Chinese empire) came from the east - not the west, as previously thought - and might have been related to the Shang Dynasty, which ruled the central plains before the 11th century BC and preceded the Zhou Dynasty.

Moreover, as Professor Li was reportedly arguing*, "_*What kind of culture was that of Qin? At the time, what was the peculiarity that historically shaped the Qin power in relation with other cultures of the time? We research the problem of the formation and the origin of the Qin culture. If we simply see the Qin culture as one of violence and military prowess, then it was a backward and closed culture. Then by using the Qin culture to unify the whole country, from the whole historical point of view, this was not useful for progress and development. This point is especially important to consider now."*_ [3]

*The point Li is making is extremely important for modernity, as the Qin emperor and his culture were the model of statecraft openly used by Mao during the Cultural Revolution.*

*On the other hand, research by Professor Allan has cast a different light on a mostly neglected aspect of the ancient political debate. Professor Allan found a large body of evidence supporting the importance of debate in the selection of the new king through abdication: a king chooses his successor from any walk of life, abdicates, and promotes him as the new king. This idea, according to the extant texts, seemed a quirk of Mozi (a philosopher of the 4th century BC and adversary of Confucius). But the manuscripts prove now that it had very wide support, in opposition to the idea that prevailed at the time and was supported by Confucians of succession through blood lineage*.

This seems more in line with the present choice of the Communist Party to renounce blood succession and select leaders according to their merit. In a way, at the 18th Party Congress, Hu Jintao, like the ancient mythical kings Yao and Shun, abdicated and gave power to Xi Jinping.

The political parallels are of course too simplistic when considering the complex influence these findings will have on the rewriting of ancient history. Yet these archeological discoveries, casting a new light on Chinese history, find a parallel in the immense influence on China of a foreign culture which is reshaping the Chinese vision of the world and of its future. Here there is a new analogy with the discovery of Pompeii.

Moreover, *Confucius, the mainstay of Chinese culture for centuries, here appears a part of a broader movement of rujia "soft scholars", who were very widespread at the time and included a broad spectrum of political ideas that were avidly debated. Most importantly, the whole body of Chinese culture that we have about the period begins to appear now almost as a doctored selection of texts from which many ideas inconsistent with the ideology of later times have been expunged or simply lost through disinterest.

Two elements concealed by this ideology begin to surface, and thus can be attributed to Han (the dynasty ruling China from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD) "spin doctors". One is that the Qin, cast as a semi-barbaric culture from the "wild west", now appears to be part of the core of the Chinese culture, actually from a dynasty preceding the Zhou Dynasty (the model of civilization for Confucius, the ideal thinker for the Han ideologues).

Another is that the idea of blood succession, punctuated by dynastic change, which prevailed through 3,000 years of Chinese history, was powerfully challenged at the time. If these two concepts were basically expunged from present texts, how many more ideas and facts were hidden or cancelled by the Qin and Han rulers, eager to spread their own propaganda through history?*

*Was there an idea of one China already?* It is hard to answer to this question from the distance of over two millennia, when their idea of state and territory was so different. *It is true, there were big differences, but the texts also reflect a language was largely similar to that used by the people people of the states located in central plains.

The debate we find in the manuscripts is consistent with the tradition we have; it was not totally different. Then this indicates the existence of a strong cultural community where everybody was talking about the same things. This cultural community possibly allowed the political unity of China to endure for many centuries. Chinese identity and Chinese history are intimately entwined and the findings in the next decades could change forever the understanding of history.*

Notes:
1. Ai Lan: "Guanyu Zhongguo zaoqi wenxian de yige jiashe", Guangming ribao, January 10, 2012 ; Sarah Allan, "On Shu (Documents) and the origin of the Shangshu (Ancient Documents) in light of recently discovered bamboo slip manuscripts", BSOAS,75.3, 547-557.
2. "Li Xueqin: Jiekai Qinren yuanyu dongfang zhi mi", China Youth Daily, June 18, 2013.
3. See here

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## Tanja

muse said:


> *Ancient texts uncover meritocracy debate*
> By Francesco Sisci
> 
> BEIJING - Imagine we were to discover a series of ancient manuscripts revealing that Plato actually copied all of his ideas from _Parmenides_, a preceding philosopher from Elea in southern Italy; that _Aristotle_ rewrote treatises originally penned by _Archytas_, another philosopher from Taranto; and actually the whole philosophical debate in ancient Greece was about politics (a very sensitive subject for the Roman Empire), not truth (a topic more consistent with later widespread Christian beliefs).
> 
> The same manuscripts could prove the Romans copied everything they had from the Etruscans, and history was later doctored by Roman emperors to undermine the importance of other Italian
> civilizations conquered by Rome and present their home city as the one true representative of culture from Italy, which was then ruling the Mediterranean world.
> 
> This discovery would make our heads spin and make us reassess the trajectory of history and all our considerations about the future.
> 
> Something similar actually happened in the West in the 18th century with the discovery of the ruins of Pompeii by German historian Johann Joachim Winkelmann, which sparked the fire of Enlightenment. And it is happening in China now possibly on an even grander scale with the discovery and first understanding of three sets of manuscripts buried at the end of the 4th century BC. They cast a totally new light on the history and philosophical debate in ancient China.
> 
> The discovery of Pompeii proved to 18th century Europe, which was growing disaffected with Christianity and the Christian tradition, the importance of pagan history and its legacy. It helped to free European minds from the fetters of dogmatism, justified by a superficial reading of the Bible, and launched Europe on the path to developing the modern world. This discovery had a further support with the then immense influence of literature and ideas coming from China through the translations of Jesuits. That literature proved the existence of a non-Christian state with a high level of civilization and yet introduced to Europe through the work of the ultra loyal branch of the Church, the Jesuit order.
> 
> *On August 30, 2013, at an international conference organized by Dartmouth College with Beijing's Tsinghua University, participants will discuss the findings from the first work on interpretation of the Tsinghua manuscripts acquired in 2008*.
> 
> Three massive sets of bamboo slip manuscripts buried around 300 BC have now been found; one in a tomb in Hubei, in a site next to the capital of the ancient state of Chu; another looted from a tomb and sent to Hong Kong before being bought for the Shanghai Museum.
> 
> The Tsinghua University set, also bought back after looting, is probably the most significant because of its historical nature and relationship to several of the Confucian classics. *The manuscripts are written in the script of the Chu state, so many characters are unknown (they are not the standard Chinese characters adopted after the unification under the first Qin emperor), and many others are illegible.*
> 
> According to Professor *Sarah Allan, the organizer of the conference at Dartmouth, and along with Tsinghua Professor Li Xueqin one of the main forces behind the reading of the manuscripts, it will take decades to fully understand the material.* The discovery of Pompeii also took decades to be fully understood and internalized by European culture.
> 
> In any event, t*here are already quite a few very important findings, according to Professor Allan. The manuscripts revolutionize our understanding of ancient Chinese history, philosophical debate, writing, and circulation of ancient texts. The writing system was standardized by the Qin emperor, who also destroyed much of the traditional literature, so these texts give us a glimpse of what texts were really like before they were reconstructed - in practice often rewritten - in the Han dynasty (the dynasty ruling China from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD).
> 
> The writing is in a regional style and has many unique characters, but the spoken language it reflects is similar that that of the central plains. Perhaps there was already a common spoken language, like later Mandarin or today's putonghua. It also appears that ancient texts were not organized in finished sets like the ones we have now, but were more open-ended collections of writings, perhaps transcribed from oral dictation. [1]*
> 
> However, *the bigger revelations are about history and philosophical debate. Not much contradicts presently known facts, Professor Allan says, but so much more becomes known that the interpretation may become totally different. It is as if we were just seeing a sweet face and from that we guessed it belonged to a girl, but then the frame expands and we see the body of a person who is clearly a boy.
> 
> Li Xueqin just this month made Chinese headlines [2] by arguing that the Qin people (who unified the Chinese empire) came from the east - not the west, as previously thought - and might have been related to the Shang Dynasty, which ruled the central plains before the 11th century BC and preceded the Zhou Dynasty.
> 
> Moreover, as Professor Li was reportedly arguing*, "_*What kind of culture was that of Qin? At the time, what was the peculiarity that historically shaped the Qin power in relation with other cultures of the time? We research the problem of the formation and the origin of the Qin culture. If we simply see the Qin culture as one of violence and military prowess, then it was a backward and closed culture. Then by using the Qin culture to unify the whole country, from the whole historical point of view, this was not useful for progress and development. This point is especially important to consider now."*_ [3]
> 
> *The point Li is making is extremely important for modernity, as the Qin emperor and his culture were the model of statecraft openly used by Mao during the Cultural Revolution.*
> 
> *On the other hand, research by Professor Allan has cast a different light on a mostly neglected aspect of the ancient political debate. Professor Allan found a large body of evidence supporting the importance of debate in the selection of the new king through abdication: a king chooses his successor from any walk of life, abdicates, and promotes him as the new king. This idea, according to the extant texts, seemed a quirk of Mozi (a philosopher of the 4th century BC and adversary of Confucius). But the manuscripts prove now that it had very wide support, in opposition to the idea that prevailed at the time and was supported by Confucians of succession through blood lineage*.
> 
> This seems more in line with the present choice of the Communist Party to renounce blood succession and select leaders according to their merit. In a way, at the 18th Party Congress, Hu Jintao, like the ancient mythical kings Yao and Shun, abdicated and gave power to Xi Jinping.
> 
> The political parallels are of course too simplistic when considering the complex influence these findings will have on the rewriting of ancient history. Yet these archeological discoveries, casting a new light on Chinese history, find a parallel in the immense influence on China of a foreign culture which is reshaping the Chinese vision of the world and of its future. Here there is a new analogy with the discovery of Pompeii.
> 
> Moreover, *Confucius, the mainstay of Chinese culture for centuries, here appears a part of a broader movement of rujia "soft scholars", who were very widespread at the time and included a broad spectrum of political ideas that were avidly debated. Most importantly, the whole body of Chinese culture that we have about the period begins to appear now almost as a doctored selection of texts from which many ideas inconsistent with the ideology of later times have been expunged or simply lost through disinterest.
> 
> Two elements concealed by this ideology begin to surface, and thus can be attributed to Han (the dynasty ruling China from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD) "spin doctors". One is that the Qin, cast as a semi-barbaric culture from the "wild west", now appears to be part of the core of the Chinese culture, actually from a dynasty preceding the Zhou Dynasty (the model of civilization for Confucius, the ideal thinker for the Han ideologues).
> 
> Another is that the idea of blood succession, punctuated by dynastic change, which prevailed through 3,000 years of Chinese history, was powerfully challenged at the time. If these two concepts were basically expunged from present texts, how many more ideas and facts were hidden or cancelled by the Qin and Han rulers, eager to spread their own propaganda through history?*
> 
> *Was there an idea of one China already?* It is hard to answer to this question from the distance of over two millennia, when their idea of state and territory was so different. *It is true, there were big differences, but the texts also reflect a language was largely similar to that used by the people people of the states located in central plains.
> 
> The debate we find in the manuscripts is consistent with the tradition we have; it was not totally different. Then this indicates the existence of a strong cultural community where everybody was talking about the same things. This cultural community possibly allowed the political unity of China to endure for many centuries. Chinese identity and Chinese history are intimately entwined and the findings in the next decades could change forever the understanding of history.*
> 
> Notes:
> 1. Ai Lan: "Guanyu Zhongguo zaoqi wenxian de yige jiashe", Guangming ribao, January 10, 2012 ; Sarah Allan, "On Shu (Documents) and the origin of the Shangshu (Ancient Documents) in light of recently discovered bamboo slip manuscripts", BSOAS,75.3, 547-557.
> 2. "Li Xueqin: Jiekai Qinren yuanyu dongfang zhi mi", China Youth Daily, June 18, 2013.
> 3. See here



That is a lot to learn. Thank you. It really opens my eye. There are some questions still linger in my mind. HOpe that you will answer it


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## muse

Tanja said:


> There are some questions still linger in my mind. HOpe that you will answer it



Or at least we can discuss how to refine questions and where to look for answers

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## muse

Chinese history is the history of great ideas, ideas that effect all humanity:


*China, a new equality and the world*
*A conversation with Wang Hui*
By Gabriele Battaglia

BEIJING - Wang Hui is one of the great contemporary Chinese scholars. Professor of Humanities and Social Sciences at Beijing's Tsinghua University, he is universally considered as one of the main representatives of the Chinese "_new left_", a definition he doesn't like, being too tied to old patterns and to a Western point of view. "_Let's go beyond old thoughts_" definitely seems his new manifesto and in today's China the equality issue happens to be a good start.

Wang Hui: [Currently] I'm writing about "_the equality of what?_". _It is a big issue now, everywhere, both in China and in the West. Here, it's about the rich and the rural regions and it is also about_ _the ecological crisis and other issues such as the minorities._

_*We all know [in China] there is a crisis of equality, but how to define it? At the end of the '70s, China's socialism was in crisis, so some people attacked equality, especially the state-owned enterprises, by suggesting a new liberal agenda: privatization, property rights and so on.

At the same time they suggested a new kind of equality, calling it "equality of opportunities" and the legal frame followed. But this came to be the legitimation of an unequal process. Everybody can see how the workers suffered from privatization, which started in the mid-'90s when they became unemployed and the compensation was very low or none at all. On behalf of the market we had deprivation, they took away rights and property from the hands of labor while arguing for equality of opportunities.

Then, at the end of the '90s, came debate about a crisis in social welfare and an attempt to rebuild. For instance, how to spread the medical system in the countryside.

In this context, the idea of "equality of redistribution" re-emerged in China, but now the process itself is facing new challenges. On one hand it is necessary to rebuild the social security system for everybody; that's about basic rights. However, this is just a response to the earlier stage, the privatization process, and now we need to do something for the migrant workers, otherwise there will be turmoil.

The big challenge here is that the Chinese economy is slowing down. More money is needed to build up that social security system while the revenues are decreasing. And at the same time, this kind of growth is so unfriendly toward the environment.

More and more energy is needed, but when you make a project for a new dam you immediately face a protest. You need to rebuild the social security system including in it ecological preservation, and this is a paradoxical, contradictory situation.

This means that you have to change the production model. There is a gap between the poor and the rich, but the main gap is between urban and rural population. So the government launched this new campaign for urbanization, chengzhenhua, [urbanization of medium and small cities] but it is nothing new, it has been like that for decades. At the same time, you see this process happening in the Chinese frontiers, the minority areas in the southwest and morthwest whose culture, lifestyle and religion are very different.

So, on one hand it's perfectly legitimate to improve the economic situation there; however we have also an ecological crisis going hand in hand with a cultural crisis, because their lifestyle is changing, and so we have conflicts in Xinjiang and Tibet.

All this means that we basically need a new idea of equality that incorporates the idea of diversity: not simply equalize everybody and everything but try to respect singularity, diversity, differences without rejecting the basic idea of equality. This is the challenge because modern equality was based on the idea of citizens who are equal. But now how to deal with lifestyles, religions, biodiversity, environment? Which equality we need? Maybe not a single idea, but a set of ideas. And this reminds to the kind of development we want.

But it's not easy to convince those economists and policy-makers in charge of the economic process, basically because the economic issue has become dominant especially for different interest groups. Even the officials can't control the whole process. So the point is that you have to think about the general issue, not only about investment and money.

This is the reason why right now we have in China a debate about the basic orientation of reforms. You know we have a say: "Cross the river by feeling the stones", but now where are the banks of the river? And you risk getting lost in the middle of the river. The point now is that nobody can clearly define where the banks are.*_

Gabriele Battaglia: How to put this debate in concrete terms?

WH: Take the big debate about the constitution we have now. It is very ambiguous because the new liberals argue for a constitutional reform whose implication is to change the whole political system. However, "constitutional reform" means starting from the constitution itself. If you start from the rejection of the constitution this means revolution. And right now there is no social base for a revolution. The basic guarantee of the constitution is the Communist Party in power, and this is not a big problem because everybody knows that there is no other political force which can replace the Communist Party. Even the radicals of the right-wing perfectly know this.

On the other hand, if you recognize this constitution it means that we are actually a socialist country and the working class is the leading class. So what is the political status of the working class in China?

Opening a discussion about the constitution is good and we need to go back to the 1954 constitution and guarantee basic rights. It was quite open and good; the Communist Party was the leading force, but you had freedom of speech and the right to strike, which was cancelled in 1982 after the Cultural Revolution, when Deng Xiaoping thought that China was at risk of anarchy and so they changed the constitution.

Again, the way to go back to this constitutional debate is to open up the discussion. The problem is that this discussion is very official so far; there is no real public space. This also relates to another big issue in China, which is the crisis of the media. On one hand, you have a huge amount of publications; on the other, public space is shrinking.

And here we have the Nanfang Zhoumo case last January, the weekly magazine whose editorial board's new year editorial on the defense of the constitution was substituted with another one praising the Communist Party, by the local propaganda leader. Huge protests happened in that case.

There is a relation, but this is not a good case because the conflict didn't happen about the public debate, it happened within the system: the appointed board members and their leaders. On behalf of freedom of speech there was a complete exclusion of real public opinion. So it was actually a matter of power redistribution. They simply rejected any single different idea to be published in their newspapers, there was only one side's idea, polarized in the Southern Weekend [Nanfang Zhoumo] and the People's Daily. Ironically both were kind of official newspapers. The conflict was about the leadership of the Department of Propaganda between old and new leaders.

This is also a crisis of representation because it is just a representation of the idea of freedom of speech and democracy, as much as the Communist Party is the representation of the idea of working class. We really need to rethink and redefine public space because the media can easily mislead public opinion towards so called "truth". This is why when I was editor of Dushu magazine [until 2007] I tried to open up this kind of space. And it is interesting: now it is all completely gone, not allowed by all the mainstream forces.

GB: What about urbanization, so called _chengzhenhua_?

WH: *It's difficult to say if generally speaking it is right or wrong. Maybe here is good and there is bad. For instance in some areas a large amount of urbanization means a high ecological price but somewhere else it fits. So you need to allow some experiments to go on, and according to our past experience these are the real driving force for the reforms. In China, most of the general macropolicy has always been a recognition of an earlier local process, not the beginning of it. For instance, rural reform started in Anhui and then spread out. So you need an even bigger space for these experiments.
*
GB: Isn't _chengzhenhua_ an egalitarian process? It looks like an attempt to create the biggest middle-class in the world.

WH: *I'm afraid chengzhenhua is too much of a top-down process, so why not allow the people to try some practical experiment from the lower level and gradually make it more and more sophisticated?

For instance in Chengdu and Chongqing, they have already had discussions about integration, how to deal with the population and their citizen status. But we have another big problem, which is that everywhere there is no longer any difference among the cities. This is a big loss of diversity.

Nobody can reverse the process, so we have to think about it. Sometimes the choice between slow and fast is not an easy one. I think it's not necessarily good to have fast Internet in every single village and China has this problem: it's too fast.

Once you have urbanized, how do you guarantee enough land for cultivation, who can you guarantee food for the huge Chinese population? So we have Monsanto's shares booming in the stock market. Why? Because China made an agreement with Argentina to allow and import their OGM [genetically modified] products. And you know these kind of products are unpredictable but at the same time you need to guarantee food for a huge and dense population while economic growth means more land. Everybody knows the secret of Chinese growth is a land policy carried on by local governments: without grabbing land and selling it to developers there is no way to get enough taxes.

There are limits, and nobody can guarantee a success and even the creation of a middle-class, which is shrinking everywhere. How can we guarantee a middle-class instead of slums, as happened in India or Latin America? Without land, people become "unemployed without land" in an urban area.

So now we have some scholars who even argue that slums are good because the slum system is based on private property of land and "freedom of migration": slums are "human rights", you see? This is the reason why I feel like writing something about "the equality of what?".

Please note that in the last few weeks the rhetoric of the government on chengzhenhua has changed. They now speak of wentuo chengzhenhua, which means "safe urbanization". Zhang Gaoli [first-ranked vice premier of the PRC and a member of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party] was the first to speak in these terms.

What does it mean? I guess something like this. Almost 10% of the Chinese population is a migrant population, which for example is a huge problem for domestic transportation, like you see during the Spring Festival. But in these past few years the situation has improved because of the [global financial] crisis, which pushed many migrants back to their villages and to cultivate the land. This probably means that migration should not necessary be so fast and so long-distance. People don't lose contact with their hometown, and we could have migration at the local level. This is a positive development, and the government probably thinks now in these terms. But if the process is too fast it is still dangerous.

So, the land and the people. Here we have the Wukan case - the village whose rebellion against land eviction forced a political change: new grassroots elections after many years.

You know the latest developments. It was a sort of model for democracy but eventually didn't follow [after one year the evictions go on and villagers' anger is rising against the newly elected local committee] and when this happened the media lost interest in that and they even didn't know how to define it, the real difficulties those people meet. In the beginning it was easy: a call for elections. But when the real problems emerged the media lost their voice.

The point is [it] not only Wukan, it's a huge process going on since 2005 with the privatization of state enterprises and so on, all on behalf of democracy and the protection of private property. What's the result of that? At first it was "democracy", then, when even the elected local leaders became critical about it, everybody lost interest.

This is the problem, which means we need a new vocabulary. The debate inside the left is about the language to define the new process and only in this way you can find new strategies to fight. At the state level and at the village level is the same thing: the political form and the social form do not match, and it's the same between our system and the Western system.

In Western media it's too easy to use terms such as totalitarian state or state capitalism about China, but understanding other political forms is too challenging. And for the mainstream media here, if anything happens you immediately go back to the Cultural Revolution and the crisis of that utopia. But this is not the point, since utopia is not the beginning of a problem, it is the response to a problem we already have. It reveals our incapability of mastering reality.

Let's see the Diaoyu islands issue. Both the Chinese and the Japanese speakers give a response based on a common ground: this happens because of Mao's earlier policy. I asked them: "If this problem comes from Mao, why in Mao's era a reconciliation took place in 1972 and no such a big crisis happened? China was a socialist country, Japan a capitalist one, but they sat together and reached ambiguous agreements, suspended any conflict for almost 40 years which in terms of foreign policy is quite successful. What's the foundation for that? Why have the islands suddenly became a main issue now, instead?"

For them everything which is wrong is past and it is not our responsibility. This is ridiculous and looks really like the call of ideology.*

GB: Speaking of scapegoats, such as Mao in this case, do you have any idea about the Edward Snowden case and the revelations about widespread US espionage? The guy flew away right now, but this is anyway a big issue for China and Hong Kong.

WH: *I disagree with those people who argued that this guy should have been handed over to the US; this is not the case. Instead, a big investigation should start because Snowden revealed that the US got a huge amount of information from Hong Kong and China. Why don't we do this investigation and reveal it to the world? I really argue that in this case China shouldn't only defend China's interest, it should keep this case transparent to the world. Again, it's a case of opening up.

Of course the hacking issue is widespread. America is actually the more culpable country, since we all use Microsoft, Apple and Google, but all the countries do that and now we need to reveal the whole story to the world.

I really hope China's relations with America will improve, but this doesn't mean it must compromise too much. It's not necessary. I really think China shouldn't use this case to defend its own behavior. Instead, I think that this kind of debate needs a real international opinion because the US got a lot of information from Europe too. And ironically most of America's media now describes that guy as a criminal.*

GB: So it's a test for China too.

WH: *Yes, it's very interesting because this is a big test not only for America. It is a big test especially for China. It is meaningful not only for the international system but also for China's inner system and its relations with Hong Kong. Snowden arrived in Hong Kong because he knew it's different from China. Of course he didn't come to Beijing.

And also, Hong Kong and the US subscribe to international treaties. So some people in China acknowledged for the first time that Hong Kong enjoys some kind of rights which only nation-states, sovereign states, have. So what kind of state is Hong Kong within our system? This is a big issue because we have not really clear what the double system means.

Some people immediately argued this is the first time we know Hong Kong has such an independent legal system in the international realm, and this means it has also a kind of sovereignty. And in my opinion this is interesting because, again, the handover of Hong Kong to China was the result of negotiations between Britain and China's government, not a public process. Now it will be tested by the people. So I think this is a very good story with different possible developments.*

GB: How this case can affect relations between China and the US?

WH: *As for America, well they are embarrassed but not so much, they don't care that much about their behavior. They did so many wars, killings, kidnappings, so this is nothing new. But here it's important because every reform here is a China-America matter. Even if people criticize how they launch a war in Muslim countries, South America or Africa, America is the model because people there enjoy freedom of speech and, especially, state interference in people's private life is illegal.

In Chinese, Weibo [microblogging] people repeat these slogans every day, and now this story has happened. So what is the response? My point is that this is not only an American problem. Here we have the disillusion about a certain kind of political change, this is important because otherwise we always try to take "the other" as a model.

Now the new nature of the crisis is totally different from the Cold War and post-Cold War context. You cannot simply think that we can replace this system with that system. We don't want to defend this system but try to change it. And we need to rethink reality, not simply start from the illusion about "the other". This is only a small story, but also a new beginning.

There's a debate between the Chinese and former Soviet academic world, and I recently read the book of Rein Mullerson, who is the president of the Tallin University's Law School and was also Gorbachev's legal adviser during the [USSR] reform era. Well, he is very critical toward that era's process and says we must rethink it. The context is different but we both agree that for China it's pretty much the same, the process is similar. I remember the slogans of the Tiananmen movement in 1989 because I was there, and at the beginning of the hunger strike, when Gorbachev came to visit China, we had this: "We want 58, not 85", because Gorbachev was 58 and Deng Xiaoping was 85. But history proved that 85 was possibly smarter than 58, and this is the irony*.

Gabriele Battaglia is an observer of Chinese affairs based in Beijing, the place to be and a good starting point for a look on globalization and its alternatives. He is a member of China-Files agency, and has previously been a writer for PeaceReporter and E-il mensile magazines.

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## Devdas

doidoi2 said:


> That picture is in fact *FLAWED*. Read the methodology. For some odd reason, India includes all the lands of current day India, but they did not include the lands of current China.
> 
> *India was not one nation back then. They were all separate countries that for some reason this guy decided to clump together. His idea was that if it's India today, it should count as india back then.
> 
> Now this might be forgivable if he measured China in the exact same way. But he chose to minimize China's GDP by including only the respective lands that each dynasty had at that time.
> 
> In short, the chart is comparing apples to oranges. Either China's GDP should be significantly higher, or India's historic GDP should be significantly lower.*


Even if that were true, China's population would have still been significantly larger, while India's GDP per capita would have been higher. Remember that Mao and the one-child policy are the reason the gap between India's and China's population sizes are this small now. For that reason, the methodology seems fine either way.


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## mil-avia

*The City-State in Ancient China*

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## Wholegrain

ephone said:


> We cannot make sure there won't be islam extremists idiots who blow themselves up in China. However, we can make sure they will go to hell quickly, either with a bullet in the head, or burned to ashes. *We will make sure whoever get involved, no matter it is their sons, parents, wives or relatives, all get serious punishments, death sentence are mostly preferred for them.*
> 
> We will not have prison for them since it will totally waste China's precious money. We would rather spend it on our roads, education and other urgent needed areas.
> 
> *One thing we Chinese can make sure is that: We will pound them so hard and let those bastards know that death for them is just the beginning. We will torture whoever involved into a state that they will vow to their god that terrorism in China is really such a bad option for them.*
> 
> *We never say it won't happen. However, we will make sure that those revenges done by Israelis, Americans, Frenches or Russians towards to those terrorists will look like so lenient and humane. Do not trust what I have said, well, you had better try it. *



China Says 5 Jihadis Are Arrested in Beijing Attack

Dumb4$$, did you know that the CCP granted pardons to all the Uyghur Communists who served in the separatist Ili National Army, and massacred thousands of Han people in Ili? The soviet Red Army and their Uyghur Communist supporters slaughtered thousands of Han civilians in 1944-1946 under the Soviet backed Second East Turkestan Republic.

Rebiya Kadeer's father served in the separatist Ili National Army along with the Soviets in the Second East Turkestan Republic. Her father, along with all the other Uyghur communist separatists, instead of being executed for massacres and war crimes, were granted amnesty and integrated into the PLA. She even mentions her father serving during the Ili rebellion in her own autobiography.

Wang Zhen didn't do **** against the former Uyghur communist separatists. Instead he went after Osman Batur and others since Batur defected to the KMT. Batur even fought against the Uyghur Communists after he defected to the KMT.

When the KMT was in Xinjiang and fought the Uyghur Communists and Soviets, the Uyghur Communists and their Soviet allies found hundreds of corpses of suspected separatists in a KMT police station when they took over a town in Ili.

Forget about whether you support with torturing and killing suspects, those are your opinions (and sitting in America and saying "we" makes you a keyboard warrior), but the fact is that the CCP spared most of the separatists and did NOT do anything to them after reincorporating Ili in 1949.

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## ephone

I have asked dumba$$ like you to get off my comments. However, you SOB still are like flies around. Just get the fxxk off my comments. Do not dump this much garbage again. 



Wholegrain said:


> China Says 5 Jihadis Are Arrested in Beijing Attack
> 
> Dumb4$$, did you know that the CCP granted pardons to all the Uyghur Communists who served in the separatist Ili National Army, and massacred thousands of Han people in Ili? The soviet Red Army and their Uyghur Communist supporters slaughtered thousands of Han civilians in 1944-1946 under the Soviet backed Second East Turkestan Republic.
> 
> Rebiya Kadeer's father served in the separatist Ili National Army along with the Soviets in the Second East Turkestan Republic. Her father, along with all the other Uyghur communist separatists, instead of being executed for massacres and war crimes, were granted amnesty and integrated into the PLA. She even mentions her father serving during the Ili rebellion in her own autobiography.
> 
> Wang Zhen didn't do **** against the former Uyghur communist separatists. Instead he went after Osman Batur and others since Batur defected to the KMT. Batur even fought against the Uyghur Communists after he defected to the KMT.
> 
> When the KMT was in Xinjiang and fought the Uyghur Communists and Soviets, the Uyghur Communists and their Soviet allies found hundreds of corpses of suspected separatists in a KMT police station when they took over a town in Ili.
> 
> Forget about whether you support with torturing and killing suspects, those are your opinions (and sitting in America and saying "we" makes you a keyboard warrior), but the fact is that the CCP spared most of the separatists and did NOT do anything to them after reincorporating Ili in 1949.


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