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Tank revival: MBTs and heavy IFVs
Christopher F Foss Jane's Land Consultant - London
MBTs have recently enjoyed a resurgence for urban operations following a period of decline at the end of the Cold War. Christopher F Foss reports
Main battle tanks (MBTs) were originally developed for high-intensity military operations supported by infantry fighting vehicles, artillery, engineers, air defence, helicopters and other air assets.
With the end of the Cold War, many believed that the role of the MBT had diminished to such an extent that they were no longer required in the force structure.
Most countries in Europe rapidly reduced their MBT fleets, with some deciding to phase out their MBTs and replace them with lighter and more deployable vehicles.
However, events in Iraq, and more recently Afghanistan, have shown once again that MBTs have a vital role to play in urban operations as they have a very high level of armour, mobility and firepower. MBTs can rapidly provide dismounted infantry with a highly accurate direct-fire capability against a wide range of threats while providing their crews with a high level of survivability against many of the weapons deployed by insurgent forces.
However, in order for MBTs to be more successfully deployed for urban operations, they have to be modified in a number of key areas.
Operational experience
Traditionally, MBTs have the highest level of protection over their 60º frontal arc as this is considered to be the most likely area of attack in conventional tank-on-tank warfare.
As operational experience has shown in Iraq, in urban operations the attack can come from anywhere through the full 360º arc, as well as from mines and even weapons fired from the upper floors of buildings into the vulnerable top surfaces of MBTs.
For this reason, MBTs deployed in urban operations have to be fitted with additional armour protection to their sides and rear. This can take the form of steel, composites or explosive reactive armour (ERA) that is normally fitted to the skirts and turret sides.
To provide protection on the rear arc of the MBT, the most favoured solution is to fit bar or slat armour, which neutralises the high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) warhead of the commonly deployed RPG-7 rocket-propelled grenade before it impacts the vehicle. This type of armour is also widely fitted on many other types of vehicle, tracked and wheeled. It is easy to manufacture and install without extensive modifications to the vehicle and damaged sections can be rapidly removed and replaced under field conditions.
Today the biggest threat to MBTs and other types of vehicle in urban operations is the improvised explosive device (IED). This can take many forms, including a large explosive charge placed under a road or bridge or a roadside bomb.
These are very hard to detect and neutralise but some electronic devices have been fielded that can block the electronic signal before it activates the IED.
The latter can involve a number of artillery shells, mortar bombs or other powerful explosive devices that are triggered by a sensor or remote-control device.
More recently, the deadly explosively formed penetrator (EFP) has been encountered in increasing numbers in Iraq and this weapon can probably penetrate at least the side and rear armour of any armoured vehicle currently deployed. A number of armour solutions have already been found to counter this threat and others are expected to follow.
Mines have always been a threat to tanks and a number of solutions have been developed to counter them.
Krauss-Maffei Wegmann has developed an enhanced mineprotection package for the German Army Leopard 2A6 (which is then designated the Leopard 2A6M) and Swedish Leopard 2A5 (Strv 122M). The modifications have been extensive and include new belly armour, reinforced torsion bars and a number of internal stowage improvements.
Canada has recently obtained some Leopard 2A6Ms from German Army stocks and these have been deployed to Afghanistan with a number of further modifications, including the installation of bar armour around the turret and hull rear along with improved crew cooling. These are designated the Leopard 2A6M CAN in Canadian service.
Adding significant amounts of additional armour can have a major effect on the overall performance of the MBT. This can include lowering the top speed and cross-country mobility, reducing the power-to-weight ratio and possibly overloading the suspension.
This has meant in some cases that the vehicle has had to be fitted with a new high-performance powerpack as well as a new or upgraded suspension system.
To provide a close-in self-defence capability, the MBT can be fitted with a remote-controlled weapon station (RCWS) that can be operated from under armour by one of the crew members, typically the loader.
This is normally armed with a 7.62 mm or 12.7 mm machine gun or a 40 mm automatic grenade launcher. In addition, the electrically operated smoke grenade launchers can also fire fragmentation grenades to discourage threat forces from getting too close to the vehicle.
In operations in southern Lebanon, Israel Defence Force (IDF) Merkava MBTs encountered a wide range of anti-tank weapons, including anti-tank guided weapons (ATGWs) such as the Russian laser-guided Kornet. To counter these and other direct-fire weapons such as the RPG-7, a number of active defence systems (ADSs) have been developed to detect and neutralise this threat.
These include the Israel Military Industries Iron Fist and the Rafael Armament Development Authority Trophy, both of which are expected to be fielded by the IDF.
There are also many other ADS systems available as well as threat-warning systems, including laser warning systems. These can rapidly inform the crew if they are being targeted by a laser rangefinder, designator or a laserbeam-riding missile.
These can be coupled with smoke grenade launchers that can screen the platform from a variety of threat weapons while the MBT deploys to another firing position.
Some systems, for example the South African Avitronics Land Electronic Defence System (LEDS), are modular systems with the baseline capability being a laser warning system and the most sophisticated being capable of neutralising incoming ATGWs and gun-launched kinetic energy penetrators.
While there are a number of measures that can be taken to improve the overall survivability of MBTs, there is no system currently developed or expected to be deployed that will give a 100 per cent survival rate.
While the main armament of the MBT usually fires two types of ammunition - armour-piercing, fin-stabilised, discarding sabot (APFSDS) and HEAT multipurpose (HEAT-MP) - vehicles of Russian design normally fire APFSDS and high-explosive fragmentation (HE-FRAG). The latter has proved very useful for urban operations.
Maximum effect
Some Russian MBTs have a modified fire-control system that enables the 125 mm HE-FRAG round to be exploded over enemy positions for maximum target effectiveness.
None of these ammunition types, however, are optimised for urban operations and a number of countries are now fielding high-explosive (HE) projectiles. Some of these have a standard impact fuze for use against buildings and bunkers, while others can be programmed to explode over the target for maximum effect, especially against dug-in infantry and anti-tank teams.
Israel Military Industries has developed its APAM (Anti-Personnel/Anti-Materiel) round in 105 mm and 120 mm versions. Each projectile contains a number of submunitions that are timed to explode over the target.
For increased situational awareness, some MBTs are now provided with improved optronics so that the crew can observe the terrain through a full 360º under day or night conditions.
In addition, optical devices can be protected against rocks, which can easily damage their expensive optics.
Many years ago, tanks were fitted with a telephone at the rear to enable dismounted infantry to have a direct link to the crew, yet most recent designs have eliminated this feature. Some users are now adding tank infantry phones once again to allow dismounted infantry to rapidly pass target information to the tank crew.
Last year Nexter Systems showed an example of its Leclerc MBT modified for urban operations called the AZUR (Action en Zone URban).
This was partly funded by the French Army technical service under a contract placed in March 2006. The upgrade was evaluated by the French Army late in 2006 alongside two other vehicles modified for urban operations: the Panhard VBL 4 x 4 scout car and a Renault Trucks Defense VAB armoured personnel carrier.
The French Délégation Générale pour l'Armement (DGA) is now evaluating the results of these trials and formulating its requirements.
In the case of the Leclerc MBT, this could well be in the form of kits that are stored in peacetime and fitted to the vehicle when it is deployed for urban operations.
Armour kit
A typical Leclerc AZUR MBT kit would consist of new side skirts of advanced passive armour, bar/slat armour fitted around the rear arc of the chassis and turret and enhanced protection above the engine decks.
To provide a close-in self-defence capability, a .50-cal (12.7 mm) RCWS is fitted to the roof as well as a panoramic sight that provides the tank commander with a full 360º observation capability.
The 120 mm main gun is retained but, in addition to firing the standard ammunition, the AZUR MBT can fire the new Nexter Munitions 120 HE F1 high-explosive round, which is already in quantity production.
Additional features of the AZUR include a close-range communication system for dismounted infantry and jettisonable supply boxes located at the rear of the chassis.
According to Nexter Systems, the AZUR kit can be fitted to a Leclerc MBT in less than half a day without requiring any workshop infrastructure. The first example of the Leclerc AZUR is regarded by Nexter Systems as a concept demonstrator and future examples could well be further enhanced.
For several years, Krauss-Maffei Wegmann has been working on a modified version of the Leopard 2 MBT specialised for urban operations.
The first example of this Leopard 2 Peace Support Operations (PSO) version was shown in 2006 based on a Leopard 2A5 MBT. This is regarded as a concept demonstrator to provide potential customers, including the German Army, with an idea of some of the modifications that could be fitted.
The design of the Leopard 2 PSO is modular so that the user can select only those subsystems needed to meet its specific operational requirements.
Mounted at the front of the vehicle is a dozer blade for clearing roadblocks and other obstacles that are likely to be found in urban operations.
For improved protection against mines, the vehicle would be fitted with the enhanced mine-protection kit already fielded by Canada, Germany and Sweden on their Leopard 2 MBTs.
The Leopard 2 PSO also features new passive armoured skirts that protect the sides of the crew compartment as well as additional armour protection on either side of the turret bustle.
Older gun-control equipment would be replaced by a new all-electric system and an integrated command-and-control system would be fitted.
To provide a close-in self-defence capability, a RCWS armed with a 7.62 or 12.7 mm machine gun or a 40 mm automatic grenade launcher would be installed and optics fitted with wire mesh protection.
The Rheinmetall 120 mm smoothbore main gun of the Leopard 2 would be retained and a white-light searchlight could be mounted co-axially, as on the upgraded Danish Leopard, designated 2A5 DK.
To allow for extended periods of operation with the main MTU engine switched off, the Leopard 2 PSO has an auxiliary power unit.
Further options for the Leopard 2 PSO could include a more powerful 1,500 hp MTU diesel engine, explosive reactive armour and a defensive aids suite. A Leo-pard 2A5 has already been tested fitted with the EADS MUSS self-protection system, which successfully neutralised an incoming ATGW during trials.
The Israeli Merkava MBT, meanwhile, was developed to meet the specific requirements of the IDF, with the current production model being the Merkava Mk 4.
Conventional MBTs have the driver at the front, fighting compartment and turret in the middle and powerpack at the rear. For maximum protection, the Merkava has the powerpack at the front and fighting compartment and turret towards the rear.
This has enabled the Merkava to have the maximum possible protection, using advanced armour protection through almost 360º, and combat experience has shown that it is a highly survivable platform. It is expected that the Rafael Armament Development Trophy active defence system will soon be installed on Merkavas.
Iraq experience
For Operation 'Desert Storm' in early 1991, British Army Challenger 1 MBTs were upgraded in a number of areas, including new side skirts of advanced armour. The Challenger 1 MBTs were subsequently passed on to Jordan but the UK retained these armour packages.
For operations in the Balkans, the Challenger 1 was replaced by the now BAE Systems Challenger 2 MBT. The older Challenger 1 armour package was rapidly fitted to the Challenger 2s for operations during the invasion of Iraq. Today, the British Army still deploys a squadron of Challenger 2 MBTs in Iraq and these originally retained the older armour package.
More recently, a new passive armour package has been fitted to the sides of the turret and bar armour to the rear of the Challenger 2 chassis and turret bustle for protection against RPG-type weapons.
Furthermore, recent enhancements include the installation of a Selex Sensors & Airborne Systems 7.62 mm Enforcer RCWS at the loader's position and advanced electronic devices to help counter IEDs.
Until Operation 'Iraqi Freedom', no modifications were made to the US Army's General Dynamics Land Systems (GDLS) M1A1/M1A2 Abrams MBT for urban operations. Towards the end of the campaign, however, a small batch of rear area protection kits was rapidly fielded.
As a result of operational experience, the army and GDLS, prime contractor for the M1A1/M1A2, developed the Tank Urban Survivability Kit (TUSK).
This aims to provide the crews with not only enhanced protection but also improved situational awareness, which is essential in urban operations.
Urban survivability
The first M1A1/M1A2 Abrams MBTs fitted with TUSK were fielded in the second half of 2007, with the first contract to GDLS covering the supply of 250 TUSK kits, which are due to be fielded by 2008.
TUSK has been designed by GDLS as a modular system that can be tailored to meet the specific user requirements. The complete system consists of a number of key subsystems:
1. Loader's thermal weapon sight (LTWS), providing a night-vision capability for the loader with a video signal out to a monocular on the tank commander's goggles;
2. Loader's armour gun shield (LAGS), providing a fenced enclosure to protect the loader from typical threats to his immediate front. This allows the loader to see targets from behind a transparent frontal guard that moves with the machine gun on a skate ring;
3. Common Remote Operated Weapon Station (CROWS), which provides the tank commander with a full day/night closed-hatch view of the urban battlefield. This is armed with an externally mounted, fully stabilised .50-cal (12.7 mm) M2 heavy-barrel machine gun that can be elevated from -20º to +60º and traversed through 360º by the commander using a joystick from under full armour protection. The sight provides an image to a 12.1-inch colour active-matrix liquid crystal display;
4. Abrams Situational Awareness Camera, allowing the loader to scan 180º over the rear of the MBT. This is mounted on the turret bustle at the rear;
5. Tank infantry phone, fitted at the rear to provide external communications with dismounted personnel in urban terrain; and
6. Abrams Reactive Armour Tiles (ARAT), installed on either side of the tank to provide side protection against handheld weapons fitted with a HEAT warhead. These are provided by General Dynamics Armament and Technical Products.
While the above is the complete TUSK system, not all of this has so far been adopted by the US Army for its M1A1/M1A2 MBTs.
As currently deployed, a US Army TUSK kit consists of a Counter Sniper Anti-Materiel Mount (CSAMM), thermal driver's vision enhancer, ARAT, LTWS, tank infantry phone and a new power distribution box.
The TUSK kit for the M1A1 Abrams Integrated Management (AIM) variant is the same as above except that the tank commander is provided with a remote thermal sight for the .50-cal (12.7 mm) M2 heavy-barrel machine gun.
More recently, additional enhancements have started to be made to further improve the survivability of the M1A1/M1A2 in urban operations.
These include improved belly protection, a driver's seat attached to the roof rather than the floor and electronic countermeasure devices to help neutralise IEDs, which are now the number one threat in Iraq.
Heavy IFVs
For many years, the IDF has used surplus tank chassis as the basis for either heavy infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) or specialised combat-support vehicles.
These have proved to be useful in urban operations as they provide a high level of protection for their crews and are normally fitted with a number of 7.62 mm or 12.7 mm RCWSs to provide suppressive fire for the dismounted infantry.
Typical of these is the Achzarit IFV based on a much modified Russian T-54/T-55 MBT chassis. It has a high level of armour and is provided with a roof-mounted RCWS.
In the future, the IDF will deploy a new heavy IFV called Namer (Tiger), which will be based on a modified Merkava Mk 4 MBT chassis. In addition to having a RCWS, the Namer will also have a battle-management system, improved situational awareness and an ADS.
Prototype stage
For some years, the Jordanian King Abdullah II Design and Development Bureau (KADDB) has been developing heavy IFVs based on Centurion MBT chassis that are now becoming surplus following the supply of a large number of ex-British Army Challenger 1 MBTs, which are known is Jordan as Al Husseins.
The first Jordanian heavy IFV is called the Temsah and, as with the Merkava, the powerpack is at the front, leaving the remainder of the vehicle clear for the troop compartment extending to the rear.
So far, the Temsah remains at the prototype stage but more recently KADDB has developed the similar Multi-Purpose Armoured Platform (MPAP), which is a more flexible design that allows it to be used for a wide range of roles.
Earlier this year it was revealed that SABIEX of Belgium had developed a heavy IFV to meet the requirements of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), based on components from surplus UAE Armed Forces Italian-supplied OF-40 MBT chassis.
This vehicle also features a front-mounted powerpack with the fighting compartment at the rear. It can be fitted with various RCWSs as well as the complete turret of the Russian BMP-3 that is used in large numbers by the UAE forces.
The UAE is now expected to have all its OF-40 MBTs and perhaps a few of its OF-40 armoured recovery vehicles converted into heavy IFVs, with the work being carried out in the UAE.
Lessons from Chechnya
Following its experience during urban operations in Chechnya, Russia has also been working on heavy IFVs as well as a new vehicle called the BMPT Tank Support Vehicle, which is understood to be in low-rate initial production for the Russian Army.
The BMPT has been designed to provide fire support to MBTs and is provided with a complete range of weapons to defeat not only other armoured vehicles, but also enemy MBTs and other armoured vehicles.
Armament comprises two 30 mm AGS-17 automatic grenade launchers on the front of the chassis firing forwards. The turret is armed with twin 30 mm 2A42 cannon, one 7.62 mm PKTM machine gun and four long-range ATGWs.
Russia has also developed to the prototype stage a heavy IFV based on surplus T-55 MBT chassis called the BTR-T, but as far as it is known this has yet to enter production.
More recently, Ukraine has developed a heavy IFV based on a much-modified T-64 MBT chassis, but it is understood that this remains at the prototype stage.
The interest in heavy IFVs comes mainly from the Middle East and Russia and it remains to be seen if this approach is subsequently taken up by any NATO countries.
Christopher F Foss is Jane's Land Consultant and is based in London
Christopher F Foss Jane's Land Consultant - London
MBTs have recently enjoyed a resurgence for urban operations following a period of decline at the end of the Cold War. Christopher F Foss reports
Main battle tanks (MBTs) were originally developed for high-intensity military operations supported by infantry fighting vehicles, artillery, engineers, air defence, helicopters and other air assets.
With the end of the Cold War, many believed that the role of the MBT had diminished to such an extent that they were no longer required in the force structure.
Most countries in Europe rapidly reduced their MBT fleets, with some deciding to phase out their MBTs and replace them with lighter and more deployable vehicles.
However, events in Iraq, and more recently Afghanistan, have shown once again that MBTs have a vital role to play in urban operations as they have a very high level of armour, mobility and firepower. MBTs can rapidly provide dismounted infantry with a highly accurate direct-fire capability against a wide range of threats while providing their crews with a high level of survivability against many of the weapons deployed by insurgent forces.
However, in order for MBTs to be more successfully deployed for urban operations, they have to be modified in a number of key areas.
Operational experience
Traditionally, MBTs have the highest level of protection over their 60º frontal arc as this is considered to be the most likely area of attack in conventional tank-on-tank warfare.
As operational experience has shown in Iraq, in urban operations the attack can come from anywhere through the full 360º arc, as well as from mines and even weapons fired from the upper floors of buildings into the vulnerable top surfaces of MBTs.
For this reason, MBTs deployed in urban operations have to be fitted with additional armour protection to their sides and rear. This can take the form of steel, composites or explosive reactive armour (ERA) that is normally fitted to the skirts and turret sides.
To provide protection on the rear arc of the MBT, the most favoured solution is to fit bar or slat armour, which neutralises the high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) warhead of the commonly deployed RPG-7 rocket-propelled grenade before it impacts the vehicle. This type of armour is also widely fitted on many other types of vehicle, tracked and wheeled. It is easy to manufacture and install without extensive modifications to the vehicle and damaged sections can be rapidly removed and replaced under field conditions.
Today the biggest threat to MBTs and other types of vehicle in urban operations is the improvised explosive device (IED). This can take many forms, including a large explosive charge placed under a road or bridge or a roadside bomb.
These are very hard to detect and neutralise but some electronic devices have been fielded that can block the electronic signal before it activates the IED.
The latter can involve a number of artillery shells, mortar bombs or other powerful explosive devices that are triggered by a sensor or remote-control device.
More recently, the deadly explosively formed penetrator (EFP) has been encountered in increasing numbers in Iraq and this weapon can probably penetrate at least the side and rear armour of any armoured vehicle currently deployed. A number of armour solutions have already been found to counter this threat and others are expected to follow.
Mines have always been a threat to tanks and a number of solutions have been developed to counter them.
Krauss-Maffei Wegmann has developed an enhanced mineprotection package for the German Army Leopard 2A6 (which is then designated the Leopard 2A6M) and Swedish Leopard 2A5 (Strv 122M). The modifications have been extensive and include new belly armour, reinforced torsion bars and a number of internal stowage improvements.
Canada has recently obtained some Leopard 2A6Ms from German Army stocks and these have been deployed to Afghanistan with a number of further modifications, including the installation of bar armour around the turret and hull rear along with improved crew cooling. These are designated the Leopard 2A6M CAN in Canadian service.
Adding significant amounts of additional armour can have a major effect on the overall performance of the MBT. This can include lowering the top speed and cross-country mobility, reducing the power-to-weight ratio and possibly overloading the suspension.
This has meant in some cases that the vehicle has had to be fitted with a new high-performance powerpack as well as a new or upgraded suspension system.
To provide a close-in self-defence capability, the MBT can be fitted with a remote-controlled weapon station (RCWS) that can be operated from under armour by one of the crew members, typically the loader.
This is normally armed with a 7.62 mm or 12.7 mm machine gun or a 40 mm automatic grenade launcher. In addition, the electrically operated smoke grenade launchers can also fire fragmentation grenades to discourage threat forces from getting too close to the vehicle.
In operations in southern Lebanon, Israel Defence Force (IDF) Merkava MBTs encountered a wide range of anti-tank weapons, including anti-tank guided weapons (ATGWs) such as the Russian laser-guided Kornet. To counter these and other direct-fire weapons such as the RPG-7, a number of active defence systems (ADSs) have been developed to detect and neutralise this threat.
These include the Israel Military Industries Iron Fist and the Rafael Armament Development Authority Trophy, both of which are expected to be fielded by the IDF.
There are also many other ADS systems available as well as threat-warning systems, including laser warning systems. These can rapidly inform the crew if they are being targeted by a laser rangefinder, designator or a laserbeam-riding missile.
These can be coupled with smoke grenade launchers that can screen the platform from a variety of threat weapons while the MBT deploys to another firing position.
Some systems, for example the South African Avitronics Land Electronic Defence System (LEDS), are modular systems with the baseline capability being a laser warning system and the most sophisticated being capable of neutralising incoming ATGWs and gun-launched kinetic energy penetrators.
While there are a number of measures that can be taken to improve the overall survivability of MBTs, there is no system currently developed or expected to be deployed that will give a 100 per cent survival rate.
While the main armament of the MBT usually fires two types of ammunition - armour-piercing, fin-stabilised, discarding sabot (APFSDS) and HEAT multipurpose (HEAT-MP) - vehicles of Russian design normally fire APFSDS and high-explosive fragmentation (HE-FRAG). The latter has proved very useful for urban operations.
Maximum effect
Some Russian MBTs have a modified fire-control system that enables the 125 mm HE-FRAG round to be exploded over enemy positions for maximum target effectiveness.
None of these ammunition types, however, are optimised for urban operations and a number of countries are now fielding high-explosive (HE) projectiles. Some of these have a standard impact fuze for use against buildings and bunkers, while others can be programmed to explode over the target for maximum effect, especially against dug-in infantry and anti-tank teams.
Israel Military Industries has developed its APAM (Anti-Personnel/Anti-Materiel) round in 105 mm and 120 mm versions. Each projectile contains a number of submunitions that are timed to explode over the target.
For increased situational awareness, some MBTs are now provided with improved optronics so that the crew can observe the terrain through a full 360º under day or night conditions.
In addition, optical devices can be protected against rocks, which can easily damage their expensive optics.
Many years ago, tanks were fitted with a telephone at the rear to enable dismounted infantry to have a direct link to the crew, yet most recent designs have eliminated this feature. Some users are now adding tank infantry phones once again to allow dismounted infantry to rapidly pass target information to the tank crew.
Last year Nexter Systems showed an example of its Leclerc MBT modified for urban operations called the AZUR (Action en Zone URban).
This was partly funded by the French Army technical service under a contract placed in March 2006. The upgrade was evaluated by the French Army late in 2006 alongside two other vehicles modified for urban operations: the Panhard VBL 4 x 4 scout car and a Renault Trucks Defense VAB armoured personnel carrier.
The French Délégation Générale pour l'Armement (DGA) is now evaluating the results of these trials and formulating its requirements.
In the case of the Leclerc MBT, this could well be in the form of kits that are stored in peacetime and fitted to the vehicle when it is deployed for urban operations.
Armour kit
A typical Leclerc AZUR MBT kit would consist of new side skirts of advanced passive armour, bar/slat armour fitted around the rear arc of the chassis and turret and enhanced protection above the engine decks.
To provide a close-in self-defence capability, a .50-cal (12.7 mm) RCWS is fitted to the roof as well as a panoramic sight that provides the tank commander with a full 360º observation capability.
The 120 mm main gun is retained but, in addition to firing the standard ammunition, the AZUR MBT can fire the new Nexter Munitions 120 HE F1 high-explosive round, which is already in quantity production.
Additional features of the AZUR include a close-range communication system for dismounted infantry and jettisonable supply boxes located at the rear of the chassis.
According to Nexter Systems, the AZUR kit can be fitted to a Leclerc MBT in less than half a day without requiring any workshop infrastructure. The first example of the Leclerc AZUR is regarded by Nexter Systems as a concept demonstrator and future examples could well be further enhanced.
For several years, Krauss-Maffei Wegmann has been working on a modified version of the Leopard 2 MBT specialised for urban operations.
The first example of this Leopard 2 Peace Support Operations (PSO) version was shown in 2006 based on a Leopard 2A5 MBT. This is regarded as a concept demonstrator to provide potential customers, including the German Army, with an idea of some of the modifications that could be fitted.
The design of the Leopard 2 PSO is modular so that the user can select only those subsystems needed to meet its specific operational requirements.
Mounted at the front of the vehicle is a dozer blade for clearing roadblocks and other obstacles that are likely to be found in urban operations.
For improved protection against mines, the vehicle would be fitted with the enhanced mine-protection kit already fielded by Canada, Germany and Sweden on their Leopard 2 MBTs.
The Leopard 2 PSO also features new passive armoured skirts that protect the sides of the crew compartment as well as additional armour protection on either side of the turret bustle.
Older gun-control equipment would be replaced by a new all-electric system and an integrated command-and-control system would be fitted.
To provide a close-in self-defence capability, a RCWS armed with a 7.62 or 12.7 mm machine gun or a 40 mm automatic grenade launcher would be installed and optics fitted with wire mesh protection.
The Rheinmetall 120 mm smoothbore main gun of the Leopard 2 would be retained and a white-light searchlight could be mounted co-axially, as on the upgraded Danish Leopard, designated 2A5 DK.
To allow for extended periods of operation with the main MTU engine switched off, the Leopard 2 PSO has an auxiliary power unit.
Further options for the Leopard 2 PSO could include a more powerful 1,500 hp MTU diesel engine, explosive reactive armour and a defensive aids suite. A Leo-pard 2A5 has already been tested fitted with the EADS MUSS self-protection system, which successfully neutralised an incoming ATGW during trials.
The Israeli Merkava MBT, meanwhile, was developed to meet the specific requirements of the IDF, with the current production model being the Merkava Mk 4.
Conventional MBTs have the driver at the front, fighting compartment and turret in the middle and powerpack at the rear. For maximum protection, the Merkava has the powerpack at the front and fighting compartment and turret towards the rear.
This has enabled the Merkava to have the maximum possible protection, using advanced armour protection through almost 360º, and combat experience has shown that it is a highly survivable platform. It is expected that the Rafael Armament Development Trophy active defence system will soon be installed on Merkavas.
Iraq experience
For Operation 'Desert Storm' in early 1991, British Army Challenger 1 MBTs were upgraded in a number of areas, including new side skirts of advanced armour. The Challenger 1 MBTs were subsequently passed on to Jordan but the UK retained these armour packages.
For operations in the Balkans, the Challenger 1 was replaced by the now BAE Systems Challenger 2 MBT. The older Challenger 1 armour package was rapidly fitted to the Challenger 2s for operations during the invasion of Iraq. Today, the British Army still deploys a squadron of Challenger 2 MBTs in Iraq and these originally retained the older armour package.
More recently, a new passive armour package has been fitted to the sides of the turret and bar armour to the rear of the Challenger 2 chassis and turret bustle for protection against RPG-type weapons.
Furthermore, recent enhancements include the installation of a Selex Sensors & Airborne Systems 7.62 mm Enforcer RCWS at the loader's position and advanced electronic devices to help counter IEDs.
Until Operation 'Iraqi Freedom', no modifications were made to the US Army's General Dynamics Land Systems (GDLS) M1A1/M1A2 Abrams MBT for urban operations. Towards the end of the campaign, however, a small batch of rear area protection kits was rapidly fielded.
As a result of operational experience, the army and GDLS, prime contractor for the M1A1/M1A2, developed the Tank Urban Survivability Kit (TUSK).
This aims to provide the crews with not only enhanced protection but also improved situational awareness, which is essential in urban operations.
Urban survivability
The first M1A1/M1A2 Abrams MBTs fitted with TUSK were fielded in the second half of 2007, with the first contract to GDLS covering the supply of 250 TUSK kits, which are due to be fielded by 2008.
TUSK has been designed by GDLS as a modular system that can be tailored to meet the specific user requirements. The complete system consists of a number of key subsystems:
1. Loader's thermal weapon sight (LTWS), providing a night-vision capability for the loader with a video signal out to a monocular on the tank commander's goggles;
2. Loader's armour gun shield (LAGS), providing a fenced enclosure to protect the loader from typical threats to his immediate front. This allows the loader to see targets from behind a transparent frontal guard that moves with the machine gun on a skate ring;
3. Common Remote Operated Weapon Station (CROWS), which provides the tank commander with a full day/night closed-hatch view of the urban battlefield. This is armed with an externally mounted, fully stabilised .50-cal (12.7 mm) M2 heavy-barrel machine gun that can be elevated from -20º to +60º and traversed through 360º by the commander using a joystick from under full armour protection. The sight provides an image to a 12.1-inch colour active-matrix liquid crystal display;
4. Abrams Situational Awareness Camera, allowing the loader to scan 180º over the rear of the MBT. This is mounted on the turret bustle at the rear;
5. Tank infantry phone, fitted at the rear to provide external communications with dismounted personnel in urban terrain; and
6. Abrams Reactive Armour Tiles (ARAT), installed on either side of the tank to provide side protection against handheld weapons fitted with a HEAT warhead. These are provided by General Dynamics Armament and Technical Products.
While the above is the complete TUSK system, not all of this has so far been adopted by the US Army for its M1A1/M1A2 MBTs.
As currently deployed, a US Army TUSK kit consists of a Counter Sniper Anti-Materiel Mount (CSAMM), thermal driver's vision enhancer, ARAT, LTWS, tank infantry phone and a new power distribution box.
The TUSK kit for the M1A1 Abrams Integrated Management (AIM) variant is the same as above except that the tank commander is provided with a remote thermal sight for the .50-cal (12.7 mm) M2 heavy-barrel machine gun.
More recently, additional enhancements have started to be made to further improve the survivability of the M1A1/M1A2 in urban operations.
These include improved belly protection, a driver's seat attached to the roof rather than the floor and electronic countermeasure devices to help neutralise IEDs, which are now the number one threat in Iraq.
Heavy IFVs
For many years, the IDF has used surplus tank chassis as the basis for either heavy infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) or specialised combat-support vehicles.
These have proved to be useful in urban operations as they provide a high level of protection for their crews and are normally fitted with a number of 7.62 mm or 12.7 mm RCWSs to provide suppressive fire for the dismounted infantry.
Typical of these is the Achzarit IFV based on a much modified Russian T-54/T-55 MBT chassis. It has a high level of armour and is provided with a roof-mounted RCWS.
In the future, the IDF will deploy a new heavy IFV called Namer (Tiger), which will be based on a modified Merkava Mk 4 MBT chassis. In addition to having a RCWS, the Namer will also have a battle-management system, improved situational awareness and an ADS.
Prototype stage
For some years, the Jordanian King Abdullah II Design and Development Bureau (KADDB) has been developing heavy IFVs based on Centurion MBT chassis that are now becoming surplus following the supply of a large number of ex-British Army Challenger 1 MBTs, which are known is Jordan as Al Husseins.
The first Jordanian heavy IFV is called the Temsah and, as with the Merkava, the powerpack is at the front, leaving the remainder of the vehicle clear for the troop compartment extending to the rear.
So far, the Temsah remains at the prototype stage but more recently KADDB has developed the similar Multi-Purpose Armoured Platform (MPAP), which is a more flexible design that allows it to be used for a wide range of roles.
Earlier this year it was revealed that SABIEX of Belgium had developed a heavy IFV to meet the requirements of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), based on components from surplus UAE Armed Forces Italian-supplied OF-40 MBT chassis.
This vehicle also features a front-mounted powerpack with the fighting compartment at the rear. It can be fitted with various RCWSs as well as the complete turret of the Russian BMP-3 that is used in large numbers by the UAE forces.
The UAE is now expected to have all its OF-40 MBTs and perhaps a few of its OF-40 armoured recovery vehicles converted into heavy IFVs, with the work being carried out in the UAE.
Lessons from Chechnya
Following its experience during urban operations in Chechnya, Russia has also been working on heavy IFVs as well as a new vehicle called the BMPT Tank Support Vehicle, which is understood to be in low-rate initial production for the Russian Army.
The BMPT has been designed to provide fire support to MBTs and is provided with a complete range of weapons to defeat not only other armoured vehicles, but also enemy MBTs and other armoured vehicles.
Armament comprises two 30 mm AGS-17 automatic grenade launchers on the front of the chassis firing forwards. The turret is armed with twin 30 mm 2A42 cannon, one 7.62 mm PKTM machine gun and four long-range ATGWs.
Russia has also developed to the prototype stage a heavy IFV based on surplus T-55 MBT chassis called the BTR-T, but as far as it is known this has yet to enter production.
More recently, Ukraine has developed a heavy IFV based on a much-modified T-64 MBT chassis, but it is understood that this remains at the prototype stage.
The interest in heavy IFVs comes mainly from the Middle East and Russia and it remains to be seen if this approach is subsequently taken up by any NATO countries.
Christopher F Foss is Jane's Land Consultant and is based in London
