What's new

China boasts breakthrough in nuclear technology

First off, this is a breakthrough technology for super-efficient use of nuclear fuel -- NOBODY else has this technology -- and China can keep it to herself as a secret. Even people's daily reported it as a breakthrough technology.

Secondly, Bigtree is correct when suggesting that even small or poor countries can conceivably build islands of excellence in certain areas. If South Korea can absorb advanced technologies because of its political alignment then China can't call that illegitimate but should recognize this advantage other have (fair or unfair).

The right attitude China should take is not to compare the best that we have with the worse that others (such as dear San-Ge) have. Instead we should be comparing the best that others have with the worse that we have. And then improve.

Just like the Americans.... they spend by far the most on defense.... lead the world in most defense fields.... but when a non-allied country makes even a tiny little advance, they freak out and immediately work to restore the gross imbalance in their favor.

In other words, China should be working toward FULL SPECTRUM DOMINANCE. Even being a little bit behind in the tiniest way is unacceptable. That is the attitude of a winner and China can learn from the US in this respect.
 
First off, this is a breakthrough technology for super-efficient use of nuclear fuel -- NOBODY else has this technology -- and China can keep it to herself as a secret. Even people's daily reported it as a breakthrough technology.

Secondly, Bigtree is correct when suggesting that even small or poor countries can conceivably build islands of excellence in certain areas. If South Korea can absorb advanced technologies because of its political alignment then China can't call that illegitimate but should recognize this advantage other have (fair or unfair).

The right attitude China should take is not to compare the best that we have with the worse that others (such as dear San-Ge) have. Instead we should be comparing the best that others have with the worse that we have. And then improve.

Just like the Americans.... they spend by far the most on defense.... lead the world in most defense fields.... but when a non-allied country makes even a tiny little advance, they freak out and immediately work to restore the gross imbalance in their favor.

In other words, China should be working toward FULL SPECTRUM DOMINANCE. Even being a little bit behind in the tiniest way is unacceptable. That is the attitude of a winner and China can learn from the US in this respect.

HongWu, though I agree with your point ( in fact I very much agree with you on that), your “islands of excellence” explanation just doesn’t cut it in this case of India's supposed "20-25 year lead", I am afraid.

It’s because “islands of excellence” only apply to totally separate areas. e.g. one can be a world leading violinist while being almost illiterate in natural sciences - fine with me, an island of excellence then. Yet it is impossible, however, for a world class expert in genetics with 20 yeas lead over his peers to have below par knowledge in biology; or a world leading artillery maker with 20 years lead over its rivals has only basic understanding hof how rifles function. Just impossible! At least one of 2 claims must be false.

That whole nuclear processing thing is even more interrelated amongst its varied steps than genetics to biology IMO, as in principle it requires a deep understanding on how those particles behave under different temperatures and pressures, how to safely slit them, control them and recycle them, to put it in a simple manner. It is a closed knowledge circle of the same inter-related knowledge.

If Iran can't make a bomb , I can safely assume that Iran is not world leading ( let alone 20 years lead) on any of those steps.

If India had 20 years lead in one area over Chinain nuclear tech circle, it world and must then inevitablely benefit the India’s understanding and hence the research& practice level of other areas of the same circle. While at the same India still struggles to produce stone-age level nukes. Can you believe that?

To tackle this wild claim in time is important; otherwise I suspect that we could see at least half a dozen related bragging threads here in the coming weeks and months, on top of "40% of Nasa scientists are Indians... blah, blah..".:partay:
 
Last edited:
I would take this with a pinch of salt. What exact technology are they talking about? Reprocessing is a huge area of development and a fundamental breakthrough is extremely unlikely by the chinese atleast. France and Japan have the necessary knowhow and research infrastructure in place to attain any such breakthrough.

It's quite amazing how Indian response is always one of sour grapes if not boo hoo cry baby flavor or both. The Ajun, the LCA jet, the T-50 usury project with Russia, the hastily assembled Arihant nuke sub (with a PRC nuke sub riding escort right below her) and how many failed rocket launches? And all that with outside help while her self-anointed "arch rival" to the North quietly and had been systematically developed that entire R&D, supply and manufacturing chain to be self sufficient.

This Sino-phobia is a historical classic.
 
India is decade(s) behind China in all nuclear technologies, except for those two that you claim? Does that make any sense to you?

After this breakthrough in "closed" nuclear fuel cycle reprocessing, China has proclaimed that it is no longer worried about its nuclear fuel supply. If India had this breakthrough 20 to 25 years ago, why did India have only limited reprocessing capability by the end of 1998 and why is India desperate to import nuclear fuel? Analogous to China, why hasn't India proclaimed its freedom from worrying about its nuclear fuel supply?

Come on, guys, 20-25 years lead is not BigTree.CN's claim. He just posted article which stated the fact that India was (or is) ahead of china in certain nuclear areas but not whole nuclear industry, 20-25 lead is an exaggeration from an anonymous expert personal view to me though.

Think of this way, china is the FIRST country to make artificial insulin - one of few china's scientific achievements deserve Nobel prize, but many years later, china still relied on importing, ironically, some are imported from Indian pharmaceutical company.

人胰岛素国产化陷入困局


由于治疗糖尿病药物没有取得根本性的突破,使得胰岛素在经过80余年的发展后,仍然是医药领域的“常青树”。随着糖尿病患病人数的不断增多以及胰岛素新剂型的不断上市,胰岛素类产品市场还将会继续扩大。

国内胰岛素医药市场巨大,而且潜力十足,然而,国内基因工程人胰岛素产业化基本可以认为还处于起步阶段,生产成本居高不下,生产规模甚小,国际竞争力弱,造成了进口胰岛素垄断国内医药市场的现象,而且可以肯定,这种国外垄断的局面短期内很难改变。

胰岛素自1921年由加拿大Toranto大学的Banting发现后,使得糖尿病的治疗成为可能,这是人类历史上最伟大的医学发现之一,该研究也因此于1923年获得了诺贝尔奖。之后,诺贝尔奖又先后3次授予了与胰岛素相关的研究人员,胰岛素因此也成为了上个世纪科技界最为耀眼的“明星”。

我国科学家于1965年首次人工合成胰岛素而举世瞩目,也是中国离诺贝尔奖距离最近的一次科技成就。在这之后,国内在胰岛素研究领域获得院士称号的约有10人。然而40年后的今天,尽管国内一些生物制药企业信誓旦旦表示自己的基因工程胰岛素产业化赶上了国际先进水平,但中国人目前所用的人胰岛素几乎全部依赖进口这个事实无法改变,这无疑表明,我国人胰岛素科技产业化是一场败局。

胰岛素类似物为增长引擎

业界周知,基因工程生产人胰岛素的工业化要求相当高:其一,胰岛素是一个比较复杂的小分子,生产过程复杂,现在上市的基因工程胰岛素有2种生产方法,分别为礼来公司的大肠杆菌表达与诺和诺德公司的酵母表达。这2种方法都需要将表达的前体进行酶切转肽,以及高效液相色谱纯化,生产成本和复杂程度远高于像干扰素等普通的基因工程产品。其二,该药品使用剂量较大,大约是干扰素临床使用剂量的300倍。其三,作为第一个上市的基因工程产品已经问世20多年,而从动物胰脏提取的胰岛素上市已有80年的历史,事实上由于长期的技术和价格的竞争,胰岛素已经成为国际上最便宜、用量最大的基因工程药品(见表1)。这使得该产品的工业化生产要达到规模大、成本低、工艺非常成熟才能实现盈利。

目前,国际上胰岛素类产品的生产商主要有丹麦诺和诺德、美国礼来、法国赛诺菲巴斯德3家公司,这3家公司占有了绝大部分市场份额。上市的胰岛素品种有重组人胰岛素及胰岛素的类似物,包括常规人胰岛素及速效胰岛素、长效胰岛素。2005年,三大公司胰岛素类产品销售总额达到72.54亿美元,其中4个品牌进入重磅炸弹药物行列。除了以上3家主要生产商外,近几年还出现了几家新兴生产商,他们分别是印度的Wockhardt、Biocon、Human Mixact of USV、Mixulin of Cadila Pharmaceuticals共4家公司以及波兰的Bioton公司,这5家公司的胰岛素目前的销售额并不大,但印度的Biocon公司生产的胰岛素是世界上零售价最便宜的,在第三世界国家销售很有价格优势,已经成为了胰岛素市场的强有力挑战者,目前正在美国FDA及欧盟进行认证,而且该公司胰岛素将在不久后进入中国市场。波兰的Bioton公司也正在合肥建立工厂,将在中国销售胰岛素。

近年胰岛素及其类似物的销售增长迅速,与2000年相比,2005年的胰岛素类产品销售额增长了1倍,平均年增长率接近20%,由此可以认为,国外胰岛素市场处于成长期。虽然胰岛素类产品销售额迅速增长,但是人胰岛素已经达到了平台期,2000年至2005年的销售额波动不大,甚至略微有所下降,从2000年开始,胰岛素类市场主要是由胰岛素类似物的迅速增长所推动,而胰岛素类似物2005年的销售额首次超过了人胰岛素,预计今后胰岛素类似物的市场还会快速增长。

国产化举步维艰

我国目前使用的胰岛素类产品有猪胰岛素、重组人胰岛素及胰岛素类似物。自从2000年以来,我国胰岛素市场不断放大,特别是重组胰岛素类产品增长迅速,与此同时,国内的猪胰岛素市场占有率在不断下滑,猪胰岛素作为低端产品主要供消费能力低的患者使用。在国家提高猪胰岛素标准后,江苏一家公司由于拥有较先进的猪胰岛素纯化技术而成为国内猪胰岛素及原料的主要供应商,2005年,该公司的净利润达到了2255万元。但其他猪胰岛素生产商市场将逐渐萎缩。

面对国外主要的胰岛素生产商大举进入我国市场,国内不少生产商抓紧开发重组人胰岛素类产品。1998年,我国基因重组人胰岛素由东北一家公司及其属下的北京公司研究成功并推出市场,两公司也由此成为国内较大的胰岛素产业化生产基地。据其公司年报披露,东北公司已经建成了1吨胰岛素生产线,预计在年底投产3吨的II期工程胰岛素生产线。相比之下,广东与江苏的生产厂虽然已经取得重组人胰岛素的新药证书,但还都只有中试规模生产能力。在2005年,江苏厂家曾公开招募研究人员攻克胰岛素的生产工艺,并透露今年将建设一条发酵规模达1吨的重组胰岛素生产线,年产胰岛素预计为20公斤。

国内厂家也在开发胰岛素类似物,主要为甘精胰岛素及赖脯胰岛素,北京一家公司研发的甘精胰岛素(Lantus)已经获得新药证书,预计在近期将上市销售。但是,由于Lantus在发达国家有专利保护,因此,该品种在专利过期前不能进入发达国家市场;同时,其开发的赖脯胰岛素引发了美国礼来的专利诉讼。

国内也有企业在开发新型分子结构的速效胰岛素,但是从国外胰岛素类似物开发经历来看,其风险较大,而且目前在国内可以仿制无专利保护的速效胰岛素,因此,在国内开发全新分子结构的速效胰岛素已经没有任何实际意义。

市场由“舶来品”主导

国内胰岛素医药市场巨大,而且潜力十足。预计2010年,国内胰岛素年销售额估计可达20亿元。虽然国内有几家企业在开发胰岛素类产品,但目前胰岛素国产化状况远非人们想象的那样乐观。根据IMS调研,2004年,我国重组人胰岛素市场基本由进口厂商占有,诺和诺德、礼来、安万特占据了国内人胰岛素市场95%左右的份额,进口量在急剧增长。2005年进口胰岛素销售金额与2004年相比激增了72.1%,达到9.8亿元,估计2005年国内胰岛素市场约为15亿元左右(以出厂价计算),而国内胰岛素生产商基本上打不开本土市场。

国内胰岛素厂家未能占有本国市场,很大的原因在于国产人胰岛素价格与进口胰岛素差距不大,使得低端的猪胰岛素还有足够的生存空间,这很可能是国内人胰岛素生产成本过高,不能将零售价格降到足以压倒进口胰岛素的地步。正是看到了这点,拥有人胰岛素生产批文的江苏某公司在2004年扩建了其猪胰岛素生产线。但有一个很深刻的例子值得我们重视。在印度,自从2003年其本国的重组人胰岛素上市后,其价格迅速降低到2.8美元/400U(该价格与我国猪胰岛素价格相近,远低于国内销售的进口人胰岛素价格),这个价格与印度销售的动物胰岛素相近,使得印度国内的动物胰岛素市场迅速消亡。目前,印度最大的胰岛素生产商Biocon公司已经建成了年产500公斤胰岛素生产线,在2004年与拜耳签署协议,由拜耳公司在中国销售该公司的胰岛素产品。可以预计,该公司的产品进入我国后,国内人胰岛素生产商将面临更大的生存压力。

国外胰岛素市场很大,但是由于国内人胰岛素生产成本过高,出口不容乐观。虽然国内某公司的年报公布,其2002~2005年合计共出口胰岛素类产品2177万美元,但这一数据还有待考究。因为,在此期间,我国海关统计共出口胰岛素类产品712.14万美元。就算出口胰岛素产品全都来自该公司,扣除出口退税,总额也仅为800万美元,远远低于这家公司近几年年报公布的数额。

胰岛素年消费量估算

根据表4估计,全世界胰岛素及其类似物的产量约为5.58吨,由于表中是根据美国市场的价格估算,因此,产量会稍微偏低,考虑到胰岛素类产品主要是在发达国家消费,而且即使在第三世界国家,如中国,这些品牌价格也在发达国家的1/2左右,因此,表4的产量估算误差不会太大。根据诺和诺德公司的文献报道,目前全世界的胰岛素消费量约为7吨,因此,可以认为去年全世界胰岛素共消费了7吨左右,其中人胰岛素约为4.5吨。

国内有报道称,江苏某公司猪胰岛素的年产量为150公斤,国内猪胰岛素原料9成以上由该公司供应,2004年开始扩建其猪胰岛素生产线,达到300公斤产能。考虑到该公司2005年销售额与2004年差距不大,估计其年产猪胰岛素略多于150公斤。由此,去年全国消费猪胰岛素200公斤。根据海关进口人胰岛素金额,可以估计到去年进口了约300公斤左右的人胰岛素,因此,去年国内胰岛素年消费量预计在500公斤,销售额估计约为15亿元(以出厂价计算)。

近期,东北某公司也宣布建设其胰岛素Ⅱ期工程,达到年产3吨人胰岛素的规模,并将于2007年正式投产。从上述的分析看,国内目前胰岛素市场虽然扩张较快,但是2005年消费仅为500公斤左右,全世界人胰岛素消费量约仅为4.5吨。由于进入发达国家技术门槛非常之高,目前国内生物制品类成品制剂很难获得FDA及欧盟认证,国内胰岛素类产品进入发达国家市场的道路还很漫长。考虑到国内目前药物只要能制造的,基本都是产能严重过剩,但是由于缺乏进入国外特别是发达国家的通行证,国内的产能都没有对世界同种药物市场造成冲击,因此,国内厂家扩张产能须慎重考虑。

相关数据

据WHO发布的信息表明,目前全球共有糖尿病患者1.75亿人,预测到2030年将增加1倍,达到3.5亿人。我国是仅次于印度的糖尿病人口大国,估计目前国内的糖尿病患者在4000万~5000万人左右。

根据文献报道,我国糖尿病发病率从1978年的0.6%升至2000年的2.4%。在同一个国家不同的经济发展时间糖尿病的发病率也不同,根据新加坡、韩国、中国等的经验,作为较贫穷的国家,经济发展越快,糖尿病的发病率上升越快,如新加坡,糖尿病发病率从1975年的1.19%升至1992年的8.6%。

在发达国家及经济较发达地区,糖尿病的发病率很高,如日本7.5%,新加坡8.6%,太平洋岛、美国为6%~8%。与这些国家相比,即使我国糖尿病患者有5000万之多,但发病率也仅为3.8%,还处于很低水平。随着我国经济的快速发展和人们生活水平的提高,以及我国逐渐步入老年化社会,预计我国糖尿病患者群还将会有较大的增加。
 
Last edited:
China technology could hit uranium demand | Trading Desk | Financial Post

"China technology could hit uranium demand
Peter Koven January 4, 2011 – 9:45 am

China claims it has made a breakthrough. On state television, the country reported that it has developed technology to reprocess spent nuclear fuel. It has evidently worked on this process for more than two decades.

This is a potential negative for uranium demand, because if true, China will be able to extract more energy from a given amount of uranium than it previously could.

BMO Capital Markets analyst Edward Sterck pointed out that China has the fastest-growing fleet of nuclear reactors in the world. It means the country may plan to reprocess a significant amount of uranium.

"The news that China has developed MOX [reprocessing] technology could reduce future uranium demand and potentially weigh on prices. However, BMO does not anticipate significant changes to near-term projections as roll-out of the technology is likely to take a number of years,” Mr. Sterck wrote in a note.

He also wrote that only France and the UK currently reprocess nuclear fuel “to any great extent.” Their technology meets about 5% of global uranium demand."
 
French and Japs are leading in this area, but all in experimental stage.
 
I would take this with a pinch of salt. What exact technology are they talking about? Reprocessing is a huge area of development and a fundamental breakthrough is extremely unlikely by the chinese atleast. France and Japan have the necessary knowhow and research infrastructure in place to attain any such breakthrough.

India lagging behind in any field.China's technology leader for 30 years than in India. Only the United States and Russia, France China and Japan have such a high scientific level. India do not even have decent scientific equipment. India's only begging. Indians can only buy, not production.India can not have independent and advanced technologies. India should learn from China.
 
Last edited:
Unfortunately, it is shameful to see some areas where we have been leading 50 years ago, such as biological drugs, to fall to the indians. we should also take note that regardless of power, india is building its own nuke plants, while we're still shamefully importing reactors from France though our 4G reactors should change that. Shanghai Electric should demolish France's grip on our reactor market.
 
India lagging behind in any field.China's technology leader for 30 years than in India. Only the United States and Russia, France China and Japan have such a high scientific level. India do not even have decent scientific equipment.

China is not in the league of USA, Russia, France and Japan in nuclear technology. India is ahead in most of the nuclear technology than China. We have our indigenous advanced reactors. We have built AHWR.


India's only begging. Indians can only buy, not production.India can not have independent and advanced technologies. India should learn from China.

What mean by begging? Is buying called begging? So China is also begging. China should learn from India as well.

France clinches $12 bln nuclear deal from China
Areva wins $12 bln China nuclear deal during Sarkozy visit - MarketWatch
 
China is not in the league of USA, Russia, France and Japan in nuclear technology. India is ahead in most of the nuclear technology than China. We have our indigenous advanced reactors. We have built AHWR.




What mean by begging? Is buying called begging? So China is also begging. China should learn from India as well.

France clinches $12 bln nuclear deal from China
Areva wins $12 bln China nuclear deal during Sarkozy visit - MarketWatch

but you're behind in the most important use of nuclear power of all: making huge bombs that can turn a country into vapor.
 
China is not in the league of USA, Russia, France and Japan in nuclear technology. India is ahead in most of the nuclear technology than China. We have our indigenous advanced reactors. We have built AHWR.

Please read earlier posts before you start making an unbelievable claim. For example, China can build a Gigawatt-class nuclear reactor pressure vessel and India cannot (see post #12). Thus, India is clearly behind China in nuclear technology.

For more examples, see my post #101:

China is far ahead of India in nuclear technologies (see posts #9, #10, #12, and #100).
...
Common sense should tell you that if India still can't build a nuclear submarine then their nuclear technology is not very advanced. Everyone knows that China has deployed Type 093 Shang-class nuclear attack submarines and Type 094 Jin-class SSBNs. China is way ahead. Those are the facts.


shangclassresized.jpg

Type 093 Shang-class Nuclear Attack Submarine (SSN)

type094ssbnresized.jpg

Type 094 Jin-class Nuclear Ballistic Missile Submarine (SSBN)
 
Last edited:
Lol,The news is nothing more but tells pepole that China prepares to massive construct nuclear power plants,which is part of Chinas new energy policy.The purpose is to reduce the reliance on oil and coal,but more on clean energy.The tech itself its not a big secret.Civilan techs more care about commercial factors and efficiency unlike the military,thats why the artical mentioned several times the word"efficiency".France and Japan do the best on this earea since they highly relied on the nuclear energy.You have a military reactor does not mean your civilian one could effectively work,likewise the USSR had IL76 transporter while could not produce a civilian B-747 class jet.

Further reading:
http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf63.html
 
Last edited:
Furthur reading:

Link:China Nuclear Power | Chinese Nuclear Energy
Nuclear Power in China
(Updated 5 January 2011)

Mainland China has 13 nuclear power reactors in operation, more than 25 under construction, and more about to start construction soon.
Additional reactors are planned, including some of the world's most advanced, to give more than a tenfold increase in nuclear capacity to 80 GWe by 2020, 200 GWe by 2030, and 400 GWe by 2050.
China is rapidly becoming self-sufficient in reactor design and construction, as well as other aspects of the fuel cycle
Most of mainland China's electricity is produced from fossil fuels (80% from coal, 2% from oil, 1% from gas in 2006) and hydropower (15%). Two large hydro projects are recent additions: Three Gorges of 18.2 GWe and Yellow River of 15.8 GWe. Rapid growth in demand has given rise to power shortages, and the reliance on fossil fuels has led to much air pollution. The economic loss due to pollution is put by the World Bank at almost 6% of GDP.1 In 2009 power shortages were most acute in central provinces, particularly Hubei, and in December the Central China Grid Co. posted a peak load of 94.6 GW.

Domestic electricity production in 2009 was 3643 billion kWh, 6.0% higher than the 3,450 billion kWh in 2008, which was 5.8% more than in 2007 (3,260 billion kWh) and it is expected to rise to 3,810 billion kWh in 2010. Installed capacity had grown by the end of 2009 to 874 GWe, up 10.2% on the previous year's 793 GWe, which was 11% above the previous year's 713 GWe.2 Capacity growth is expected to slow, reaching about 1600 GWe in 2020. At the end of 2007, there was reported to be 145 GWe of hydro capacity, 554 GWe fossil fuel, 9 GWe nuclear and 4 GWe wind, total 713 GWe. In 2008, the country added 20.1 GWe of hydro capacity, 65.8 GWe coal-fired capacity, and 4.7 GWe wind.

These capacity increase figures are all the more remarkable considering the forced retirement of small inefficient coal-fired plants: 26 GWe of these was closed in 2009, making 60 GWe closed since 2006, cutting annual coal consumption by 69 million tonnes (Mt) and annual carbon dioxide emissions by 139 Mt. China is well advanced in developing and deploying supercritical and ultra-supercritical coal plants, as well as moving quickly to design and deploy technologies for integrated (coal) gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plants.

The grid system run by the State Grid Corporation of China (SGCC) is sophisticated and rapidly growing, utilising ultra high voltage (1000 kV AC and 800 kV DC) transmission. By 2020, the capacity of the UHV network is expected to be some 300 GW, which will function as the backbone of the whole system, having 400 GWe of clean energy sources connected, of which hydropower will account for 78 GW, and wind power from the north a further significant portion (wind capacity by 2020 is planned to be 100 GWe). Also by 2020, operational transmission losses are expected to be 5.7%, down from 6.6% in 2010. At the end of 2009, China had budgeted to spend $600 billion upgrading its grid.

Among the main listed generators, Huaneng Power produced 203.5 billion kWh from its domestic plants in 2009, 10.2% up on 2008. Datang Power produced 141.9 billion kWh, 12% up on 2008. Huadian Power produced 107.5 billion kWh, 6.75% above 2008. CPI Development produced 43.9 billion kWh, 2.0% above 2008 level.

While coal is the main energy source, most reserves are in the north or northwest and present an enormous logistic problem – nearly half the country's rail capacity is used in transporting coal. Because of the heavy reliance on old coal-fired plant, electricity generation accounts for much of the country's air pollution, which is a strong reason to increase nuclear share. China recently overtook the USA as the world's largest contributor to carbon dioxide emissions. The US Energy Information Administration predicts that China's share in global coal-related emissions will grow by 2.7% per year, from 4.9 billion tonnes in 2006 to 9.3 billion tonnes in 2030, some 52% of the projected world total. Total carbon dioxide emissions in China are projected to grow by 2.8% per year from 6.2 billion tonnes in 2006 to 11.7 billion tonnes in 2030 (or 28% of world total). In comparison, total US carbon dioxide emissions are projected to grow by 0.3% per year, from 5.9 billion tonnes in 2006 to 7.7 billion tonnes in 2030.3

Electricity generation is only one part of China's rapid development; roads, air transport and a 40,000 km high-speed rail system by 2015 are others.

Nuclear power

Nuclear power has an important role, especially in the coastal areas remote from the coalfields and where the economy is developing rapidly. Generally, nuclear plants can be built close to centres of demand, whereas suitable wind and hydro sites are remote from demand. Moves to build nuclear power commenced in 1970 and about 2005 the industry moved into a rapid development phase. Technology has been drawn from France, Canada and Russia, with local development based largely on the French element. The latest technology acquisition has been from the USA (via Westinghouse, owned by Japan's Toshiba) and France. The Westinghouse AP1000 is the main basis of technology development in the immediate future.

Prior to 2008, the government had planned to increase nuclear generating capacity to 40 GWe by 2020 (out of a total 1000 GWe planned), with a further 18 GWe nuclear being under construction then. However, government targets for nuclear power have been increasing. As of June 2010, official installed nuclear capacity projections were 70-80 GWe by 2020, 200 GWe by 2030 and 400-500 GWe by 2050.

Concerning technology, PWRs are expected to level off at 200 GWe about 2040, and fast reactors progressively increase from 2020 to at least 200 GWe by 2050 and 1400 GWe by 2100.

In September 2010, the China Daily reported that China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) alone plans to invest CNY 800 billion ($120 billion) into nuclear energy projects by 2020. Total investment in nuclear power plants, in which CNNC will hold controlling stakes, will reach CNY 500 billion ($75 billion) by 2015, according to CNNC. In order to fund the company's expansion target, CNNC plans to list its subsidiary, CNNC Nuclear Power Co Ltd in 2011, to attract strategic investors.

china.jpg

Reactor technology

China has set the following points as key elements of its nuclear energy policy:

PWRs will be the mainstream but not sole reactor type.
Nuclear fuel assemblies are fabricated and supplied indigenously.
Domestic manufacturing of plant and equipment will be maximised, with self-reliance in design and project management.
International cooperation is nevertheless encouraged.
The technology base for future reactors remains officially undefined, though two designs are currently predominant in construction plans: CPR-1000 and AP1000. Beyond them, high-temperature gas-cooled reactors and fast reactors appear to be the main priorities.

A major struggle between the established China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) pushing for indigenous technology and the small but well-connected State Nuclear Power Technology Corp (SNPTC) favouring imported technology was won by SNPTC about 2004. In particular, SNPTC proposes use of indigenized 1000+ MWe plants with advanced third-generation technology, arising from Westinghouse AP1000 designs at Sanmen and Haiyang (see section below on Embarking upon Generation III plants). Westinghouse has agreed to transfer technology to SNPTC over the first four AP1000 units so that SNPTC can build the following ones on its own.

In February 2006, the State Council announced that the large advanced PWR was one of two high priority projects for the next 15 years, depending on "Sino-foreign cooperation, in order to master international advanced technology on nuclear power and develop a Chinese third-generation large PWR".4 In September 2006, the head of the China Atomic Energy Authority said that he expected large numbers of third-generation PWR reactors derived from foreign technology to be built from about 2016, after experience is gained with the initial AP1000 units.

AP1000

The Westinghouse AP1000 is the main basis of China's move to Generation III technology. The first four AP1000 reactors are being built at Sanmen and Haiyang, for CNNC and CPI respectively, and involve a major technology transfer agreement. At least eight more at four sites are firmly planned after them, and about 30 more are proposed to follow. These are built from modules fabricated adjacent to each site. The timeline is 50 months from first concrete to fuel loading, then six months to grid connection for the first four units, with this expected to reduce significantly for the following units. The cost of the first four is expected to be less than $2000/kW, with this reducing to $1600 for further units. In October 2009, SNPTC and CNNC signed an agreement to co-develop and refine the AP1000 design. (See also section below on Embarking upon Generation III plants).

EPR

Two Areva EPR reactors are being built at Taishan, and at least two more are planned (see section below on Embarking upon Generation III plants). Areva says the reactors are 4590 MWt, with net power 1660 MWe.

In October 2008, Areva and CGNPC announced establishment of an engineering joint venture as a technology transfer vehicle for development EPR and other PWR plants in China and later abroad. The JV will be held 55% by CGNPC and other Chinese interests, and 45% by Areva. It will engineer and procure equipment for both the EPR and the CPR-1000.

CAP1400

Westinghouse announced in 2008 that it was working with SNPTC and Shanghai Nuclear Engineering Research & Design Institute (SNERDI) to develop jointly a passively safe larger design from the AP1000, probably of 1400 MWe capacity for large-scale deployment. This development with SNERDI opens the possibility of China itself exporting the new larger units with Westinghouse's cooperation.

In December 2009, the State Nuclear Demonstration Company – a 55-45% joint venture company by SNPTC and China Huaneng Group – was set up to build and operate an initial unit of the larger design, the CAP1400, at Huaneng's Shidaowan site. The new company signed a set of agreements with SNERDI and the State Nuclear Power Engineering Company (SNPEC) in November 2010 to proceed with the project. Construction is scheduled to start in April 2013, and SNPTC hoped to have it operating in December 2017. Westinghouse is to provide technical consulting services to SNPTC for the design. It is to be followed by a CAP1700 design, and China will own the intellectual property rights for these two larger designs. SNPEC is doing the engineering under a team from SNERDI, the Shandong Electric Power Engineering Consulting Institute (SEPECI), and the State Nuclear Power Equipment Manufacturing Company (SNPEMC), which will make the components.

CNP-1000 (also CNP-600, CNP-300)

CNNC had been working with Westinghouse and Framatome (now Areva) at SNERDI since the early 1990s to develop a Chinese standard three-loop PWR design, the CNP-1000. This is developed from the single-loop Qinshan CNP-300 unit (scaled up to the two-loop CNP-600 units, also at Qinshan), with high (60 GWd/t) burn-up, 18-month refueling cycle and 20 more fuel assemblies than the French-origin unitsa. In 1997, the Nuclear Power Institute of China (NPIC) at Chengdu became involved in the reactor design and, early in 2007, SNERDI was reassigned to concentrate on the AP1000 program. CNNC has been keen to create its own brand of advanced second-generation reactor with full intellectual property rights, and wanted to build two initial CNP-1000 plants at Fangjiashan, adjacent to Qinshan near Shanghai, under the 11th Economic Plan, though the design probably would not have been ready. In early 2007, the CNP-1000 development was put on hold indefinitely, though this aborted export plans for two CNP-1000 units to Pakistan.

Further CNP-600 units are being built at Qinshan and Changjiang, Hainan. CNNC says they are free of French intellectual property rights. CNNC is also developing the design to the ACP600 which it expects to be able to built on Hainan or in the northwest Gansu province about 2013b.

A new 300 MWe CNP-300 PWR unit is being built at Chasma in Pakistan by the China Zhongyuan Engineering Corporation. It is a twin to that already commissioned in 2000, and similar to Qinshan 1 – China's first indigenously-designed (by SNERDI) nuclear power plant.

CNNC is seeking to sell the CNP-300 to Belarus and in Africa.

CPR-1000

The CPR-1000 is a significantly upgraded version of the 900 MWe-class French three-loop technology imported for the Daya Bay nuclear power plant in the 1980s. Known as the 'improved Chinese PWR' and designated Generation II+, it features digital instrumentation and control and a design life of 60 years. Its 157 fuel assemblies have core melt frequency of 1x10-5 and a release probability an order of magnitude lower than this.

Standard construction time is 52 months, and the unit cost is under CNY 10,000 (US$ 1500) per kilowatt. With a capacity of 1080 MWe gross (1037 MWe net), Ling Ao Phase II is the first plant to be designated as the CPR-1000 design. The CPR-1000 is being widely and quickly deployed for domestic use.

China Guangdong Nuclear Power Corporation (CGNPC) led the development of the CPR-1000 and has established a nearly complete domestic supply chain. However, Areva retains intellectual property rights, which constrains overseas sales since the Chinese would need agreement from Areva on a case-by-case basis.

CGNPC refers to later units as CPR-1000+, incorporating design improvements which bring it close to Generation III standard. Of more significance is its evolution to the ACPR-1000 with full Chinese intellectual property rights and which CGNPC expects to make available for local build and overseas markets from 2013.

cgnpc.png

VVER

Russia's Atomstroyexport was general contractor and equipment provider for the Tianwan AES-91 power plants using the V-428 version of the well-proven VVER-1000 reactor of 1060 MWe capacity. The reactors incorporate Finnish safety features and Siemens-Areva instrumentation and control systems. Russia's Energoatom is responsible for maintenance from 2009. Tianwan units 3 & 4 will use the same version of the VVER-1000 reactor, and then units 5 & 6 will probably use the VVER-1200.

Candu

In September 2005, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd (AECL) signed a technology development agreement with CNNC which opened the possibility of it supplying further Candu-6 reactors. AECL built the two-unit Qinshan Phase III plant on schedule and under budget and estimates that it could be replicated for 25% lower cost. Any replication would be on the basis of involving local engineering teams, not on a turnkey basis, but the technology is now well understood and the decades-old Candu-6 design would likely pose fewer problems for technology transfer than state of the art third-generation designs from Westinghouse and Areva NP. (The later Korean Candu-6 plants at Wolsong had 75% local content.) However, the agreement with CNNC – more specifically with SNERDI – looked further forward to collaboration on AECL's new ACR design later. SNERDI is now focused on AP1000 engineering and reassigned to SNPTC, so early in 2008 work on Candu fuel technologies passed to another CNNC entity: the Nuclear Power Institute of China (NPIC).

BWR

Having left the Chinese reactor market to others, in the light of China's preference for PWR designs, GE has been commending its new boiling water reactor designs for future orders there.

HTR

In February 2006, the State Council announced that the small high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTR) was the second of two high priority projects for the next 15 years. The small HTR-PM units with pebble bed fuel were to be 200 MWe reactors, similar to that being developed in South Africa, but plans have evolved to make them twin 105 MWe units driving a single steam turbine. China Huaneng Group is the lead organization in the consortium to build the demonstration Shidaowan HTR-PM with China Nuclear Engineering & Construction Group (CNEC) and Tsinghua University's INET, which is the R&D leader. Chinergy Co. is the main contractor for the nuclear island. Thermal efficiency of 40%, localisation 75% and 50 month construction for the first unit is envisaged. The initial HTR-PM will pave the way for 18 (3x6) further 210 MWe units at the same site – total 3800 MWe (see Shidaowan project below, and Research and development section in page on China's Nuclear Fuel Cycle).

Fast neutron reactor

Longer-term, fast neutron reactors (FNRs) are seen as the main technology, and CNNC expects the FNR to become predominant by mid-century. A 65 MWt fast neutron reactor – the Chinese Experimental Fast Reactor (CEFR) – near Beijing achieved criticality in July 2010.5 Based on this, a 600 MWe pre-conceptual design was developed. The current plan is to develop an indigenous 1000 MWe design to begin construction in 2017, and commissioning 2022. This is known as the Chinese Demonstration Fast Reactor (CDFR) project 1.

In addition to CDFR project 1, in October 2009, an agreement with Russia confirmed earlier indications that China would opt for the BN-800 technology as CDFR project 2. The 880 MWe gross BN-800 reactor being built by OKBM Afrikantov at Beloyarsk in Siberia is the reference design and the first two in China are planned to start construction in 2013 at Sanming, Fujian province, with the first to be in operation in 2018 (see see section below on Sanming).

See also Fast neutron reactors section in page on China's Nuclear Fuel Cycle.

Embarking upon Generation III plants

In September 2004, the State Council approved plans for two units at Sanmen, followed by six units at Yangjiang (two to start with), these to be 1000 or 1500 MWe reactors pioneering Generation III nuclear technology from overseas. The Sanmen (in Zhejiang province) and Yangjiang (in Guangdong province) reactors were subject to an open bidding process for third-generation designs, with contracts to be awarded in mid-2006 – in the event, mid-2007 – putting them clearly into the 11th Five Year Plan.

Bidding process

This open bidding process underlined the extent to which China is making itself part of the world nuclear industry, and yet at first remaining somewhat ambivalent about that.

Three bids were received for the four Sanmen and Yangjiang reactors: from Westinghouse (AP1000 reactors), Areva (EPR) and Atomstroyexport (VVER-1000 model V-392). The State Nuclear Power Technology Corporation (SNPTC), directly under China's State Council, was in charge of technology selection for new plants being bid from overseas.

The USA, French and Russian governments were reported to be giving firm support as finance and support arrangements were put in place. The US Export-Import bank approved $5 billion in loan guarantees for the Westinghouse bid, and the French Coface company was expected similarly to finance Areva for its bid. The US Nuclear Regulatory Commission gave approval for Westinghouse to export equipment and engineering services as well as the initial fuel load and one replacement for the four units. Bids for both two-unit plants were received in Beijing on behalf of the two customers: China Guangdong Nuclear Power Co (CGNPC) for Yangjiang, and China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) for Sanmen. Bids were for the nuclear portion of each plant only, the turbine tenders to be called for subsequently.

Bids were assessed on level of technology, the degree to which it was proven, price, local content, and technology transfer - which apparently became the major factor. Areva and Westinghouse were short-listed. However, the decision on reactor type was delayed, and came under review at the highest political level, with CNNC evidently pushing for the use of indigenous second-generation designs for both sites.

In December 2006, 22 months after the bids were submitted and after several revisions to them, the Westinghouse AP1000 reactor design was selected for the four units – two each at Sanmen and Yangjiang. Early in 2007, the two units planned for the Yangjiang site were switched to Haiyang in the more northerly Shandong province, making way for two EPR units Areva was in negotiations to build at Yangjiang. Later in 2007, plans for the EPRs under consideration for Yangjiang were transferred to another Guangdong site – Taishan – since there was pressure to build a lot of capacity quickly at Yangjiang.

Sanmen 1&2 and Haiyang 1&2

A framework agreement was signed at the end of February 2007 between Westinghouse and SNPTC specifying Haiyang and Sanmen for the four AP1000 units. In July 2007, Westinghouse, along with consortium partner Shaw, signed the contracts with SNPTC, Sanmen Nuclear Power Company (51% owned by CNNC), Shangdong Nuclear Power Company (61% owned by CPI) and China National Technical Import & Export Corporation (CNTIC) for four AP1000 reactors. Specific terms were not disclosed but the figure of $5.3 billion for the first two was widely quoted.

Sanmen site works commenced in February 2008 and full construction on Sanmen 1 – the world's first AP1000 unit – officially commenced on 19 April 2009. The reactor is expected to begin operation in August 2013 with the second about one year later. First concrete at Haiyang 1 was in September 2009. The Haiyang units are expected to commence operation in 2014 and 2015.

AP1000 construction and equipment contracts

Westinghouse and Shaw Group have an engineering, procurement, commissioning and start-up as well as project management contract with SNPTC for the first four reactors (Sanmen & Haiyang). Also Shaw has a contract with State Nuclear Power Engineering Corp. Ltd, a SNPTC subsidiary, for technical support for the first two Dafan, Xianning units in Hubei province, including engineering and design management, project controls, quality assurance, construction management and project management.

In April 2007, Westinghouse signed a $350 million contract with Doosan Heavy Industries in Korea for two pressure vessels and four steam generators for Sanmen 1 and Haiyang 1. The pressure vessels for the other two units are being made by Chinese manufacturers: China First Heavy Industries (CFHI, also known as YiZhong) for Sanmen 2 and Shanghai Electric Group Corporation (SEC) for Haiyang 2. Steam generators for Sanmen 2 and Haiyang 2 are being manufactured by Harbin Power Equipment Co., Ltd. (HPEC) and SEC, respectively.

All four steam turbine generators are being manufactured by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI). In a $521 million deal, Sanmen Nuclear Power ordered two turbine generator packages from MHI at the end of September 2007, with Shandong Nuclear Power ordering another two early in 2008. MHI's Takasago Machinery Works is manufacturing the turbines, including rotors and blades. Mitsubishi Electric Corporation is supplying the generators and HPEC, partnering with MHI, is responsible for turbine casings, piping and associated facilities. The turbines will reportedly boost the capacity of the reactors from their designed 1175 MWe to 1250 MWe gross.

In November 2010, further contracts were signed between SNPTC and Westinghouse, including one for Westinghouse to provide SNPTC with technical consulting services in research and development of the CAP1400 nuclear power plant, to be developed by SNPTC with Chinese intellectual property rights. Westinghouse said that having shared design technology with SNERDI, it expected 100% localization by 2015.

Taishan 1&2

In February 2007, EDF entered a cooperation agreement with CGNPC to build and operate a two-unit EPR power station at Yangjiang in Guangdong province. This deal was not expected to involve the technology transfer which is central to the Westinghouse contracts, since the EPR has multiple redundant safety systems rather than passive safety systems and is seen to be more complex and expensive, hence of less long-term interest to China. However, negotiations with Areva and EDF dragged on and in August 2007 it was announced that the EPR project had been shuffled to Taishan (in Guangdong) so that six CPR-1000 units previously planned for that site could be built at Yangjiang as soon as possible.

At a November 2007 ceremony attended by Chinese president Hu Jintao and French president Nicolas Sarkozy in Beijing's Great Hall of the People, Areva initialed an €8 billion contract with CGNPC for the two EPRs at Taishan plus supply of fuel to 2026 and other materials and services for them. The whole project, including fuel supply, totals €8 billion, of which the nuclear reactors themselves were reported to be about €3.5 billion. Steam turbine generators costing €300 million are included in the larger sum. The Guangdong Development Commission quotes the total investment in both units as CNY 49.85 billion ($7.3 billion). The joint venture partners will put up CNY 16.45 billion and the balance will be borrowed with guarantee from the Central Bank of France. French export credits for the project are reported as €1.7 billion ($2.4 billion), covering purchase of equipment such as pressure vessel and steam generators for unit 1 from French suppliers.

In August 2008, EDF and CGNPC signed the final agreements for the creation of Guangdong Taishan Nuclear Power Joint Venture Company Limited (TNPC). EDF will hold 30% of TNPC for a period of 50 years (the maximum period permitted for a joint venture in China), CGNPC 70%. TNPC will oversee the building, then own and operate the plant. EDF will pay €600 to 800 million over four years for this share, subject to approval by the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) and the Ministry of Commerce. (EDF is project manager and architect for the Flamanville 3 EPR project in France, and this initiative consolidates its change in corporate strategy outside France as expressed already in the UniStar joint venture set up in mid-2007 with Constellation in USA to build, own and operate a fleet of US-EPRs in North America.)

CGNPC subsidiary China Nuclear Power Engineering Co. and Areva also set up an engineering joint venture Wecan, in December 2009. This is 55% CGNPC and 45% Areva, is based in Shenzen, and builds on Areva's European experience

CGNPC authorised construction in July 2008 and first concrete was poured on 28 October 2009, though the official inauguration ceremony was not until 21 December. Construction on the second unit started in April 2010. The first unit should be completed at the end of 2013 and the second in 2015. The major components for unit 1 are imported: the pressure vessel from Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) in Japan and the steam generators from Areva Chalon/St. Marcel in France, but those for unit 2 are all built in China: the pressure vessel by Dongfang Electric (DEC), the steam generators by DEC (two) and Shanghai Electric (two). The Arabelle steam turbines and 1750 MWe generators are being purchased separately from Alstom and Dongfang Electric Co.

Nuclear growth
In 2007, nuclear power plants provided 62.86 billion kWh – 2.3% of total – and there is now 8.6 GWe (net) installed. The first two nuclear power plants in mainland China were at Daya Bay near Hong Kong and Qinshan, south of Shanghai, with construction starting in the mid-1980s.

China's concerted nuclear expansion began with the National Development and Reform Commission's (NDRC's) Tenth Economic Plan for the years 2001-2005. (China's first economic plan was in 1953 and began China's centrally planned industrialization under Mao Zedong.) The Eleventh Economic Plan for the years 2006-2010 set even more ambitious goals than the Tenth for new nuclear plant construction, and marked a watershed in China's commitment to third-generation reactors, such as the Sanmen plant in Zhejiang province and Haiyang plant in Shandong province (see section above on Reactor technology).

The Tenth Five-Year Plan (2001-05) incorporated the construction of eight nuclear reactors, though the timeline for contracts was extended, putting the last two projects into the 11th plan. The four units in the Tenth Plan were: Ling Ao Phase II (also known as Ling Dong) in Guangdong province – the first CPR-1000 plant and based on the Daya Bay and Ling Ao Phase I nuclear plants; and Qinshan Phase II, in Zhejiang province – duplicating the indigenous CNP-600 units 1&2. The following slipped to the Eleventh Plan: Sanmen in Zhejiang province, using advanced foreign technology and design; and Yangjiang (originally) in Guangdong province, 500 km west of Hong Kong, also using advanced foreign technology.

The 11th Five Year Plan (2006-10) had firmer environmental goals than previously, including reduction of 20% in the amount of energy required per unit of GDP, i.e. 4% reduction per year. As well as the Sanmen and Yangjiang projects slipped from the Tenth Plan, nuclear power developments originally proposed in the Eleventh Plan included reactors at Hongyanhe (4), Haiyang (2), Fuqing (2) and Taishan (2), all of which are now under construction. Two at Lufeng and two at Hongshiding are delayed.

In 2007, it was announced that three state-owned corporations had been approved by NNSA to own and operate nuclear power plants: CNNC, CGNPC and China Power Investment Corporation (CPI). Any other public or private companies are to have minority shares in new projects, which is proving a severe constraint on the ambitions of several of the country's largest utilities. CGNPC is increasingly preeminent in nuclear power plants.

By the end of the 12th Five Year Plan (2011-15) some 25 GWe is planned to be operational, and 45 GWe by the end of the 13th Five Year Plan.

CGNPCmap.gif

More than 16 provinces, regions and municipalities have announced intentions to build nuclear power plants in the 12th Five Year Plan 2011-15. These include Henan and Sichuan, as well as those listed in the Further nuclear power units proposed Table below – most of which have preliminary project approval by the central government but are not necessarily scheduled for construction. Provinces put together firm proposals with reactor vendors by 2008 and submitted them to the central government's National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) for approval during 2009. NRDC consideration is via the new National Energy Administration (NEA). A great many proposals were received, many of which will be deferred to the 13th Plan.

In its 2007 Annual Report, CPI said that at the end of the 12th Five Year Plan it expected to have 100 GWe of controllable installed capacity including three nuclear power bases: Liaoning, Shandong and inland.6

The complex ownership structure of Chinese nuclear plants is described in Appendix 1: Government Structure and Ownership, and China's considerable heavy engineering and manufacturing capacity is detailed in the information page on Heavy Manufacturing of Power Plants.

Operating nuclear plants
Operating nuclear reactors

Units Province Net capacity (each) Type Operator Commercial operation
Daya Bay 1&2 Guangdong 944 MWe PWR CGNPC 1994
Qinshan Phase I Zhejiang 279 MWe PWR (CNP-300) CNNC April 1994
Qinshan Phase II, 1-3 Zhejiang 610 MWe PWR (CNP-600) CNNC 2002, 2004, 2010
Qinshan Phase III, 1&2 Zhejiang 665 MWe PHWR (Candu 6) CNNC 2002, 2003
Ling Ao Phase I, 1&2 Guangdong 935 MWe PWR CGNPC 2002, 2003
Tianwan 1&2 Jiangsu 1000 MWe PWR (VVER-1000) CNNC 2007, 2007
Ling Ao Phase II, 1 Guangdong 1037 MWe PWR (CPR-1000) CGNPC Sept 2010
Total: 13 10,234 MWe
Daya Bay, Ling Ao Phase I

The Daya Bay reactors in Guangdong province are standard 3-loop French PWR units supplied by Framatome, with GEC-Alstom turbines. Electricite de France (EDF) managed construction, starting August 1987, with the participation of Chinese engineers. Commercial operation of the two units was in February and May 1994. There were long outages in 1994-96 when Framatome had to replace major components. Reactor vessel heads were replaced in 2004. The plant produces about 13 billion kWh per year, with 70% transmitted to Hong Kongc and 30% to Guangdong.

The Ling Ao Phase I reactors are virtually replicas of adjacent Daya Bay. Construction started in May 1997 and Ling Ao 1 started up in February 2002 entering commercial operation in May. Ling Ao 2 was connected to the grid about September 2002 and entered commercial operation in January 2003. The two Ling Ao reactors use French technology supplied by Framatome, but with 30% localisation. They are reported to have cost $1800 per kilowatt.

Daya Bay and Ling Ao together comprise the 'Daya Bay nuclear power base' under the common management of Daya Bay Nuclear Power Operations & Management Co (DNMC), part of China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group (CGNPC). Framatome is now Areva NP. For Ling Ao Phase II, see below.

Qinshan

Qinshan 1 in Zhejiang province 100 km southwest of Shanghai, is China's first indigenously-designed and constructed nuclear power plant (though with the pressure vessel supplied by Mitsubishi, Japan). Design of the 300 MWe PWR was by the Shanghai Nuclear Engineering Research & Design Institute (SNERDI). Construction work spanned 6.5 years from March 1985, with first grid connection in December 1991. It was shut down for 14 months for major repairs from mid-1998.

In October 2007, Qinshan 1 was shut down for a major upgrade. The entire instrumentation and control system was replaced, along with the reactor pressure vessel head and control rod drives. Areva NP supervised the work, which is likely to lead to life extension beyond the original 30 years.

Qinshan Phase II units 1&2 are locally-designed and constructed 2-loop PWR reactors, scaled up from Qinshan 1, and designated CNP-600. Local content was 55%. Unit 1 started up at the end of 2001 and entered commercial operation in April 2002. Unit 2 started up in March 2004, with commercial operation in May 2004. Units 3 & 4 are similar, with local content of 77%. After 53 months construction, unit 3 was grid connected on 1 August 2010, and entered commercial operation 12 weeks later7.

In 2004, CNNC announced that the next two Qinshan units would be 1000 MWe indigenous units (i.e.CNP-1000 units, now seen as very unlikely or much delayed, and in effect Fangjiashan, adjacent to Qinshan 1, takes over this role).

Qinshan Phase III units 1&2 use the Candu 6 pressurised heavy water reactor (PHWR) technology, with Atomic Energy of Canada (AECL) being the main contractor of the project on a turnkey basis. Construction began in 1997 and unit 1 started up in September 2002 and unit 2 in April 2003. They are each about 665 MWe net.

Tianwan

Tianwan Phase I at at Lianyungang city in Jiangsu province is a Russian AES-91 power plant (with two 1060 MWe VVER reactors) constructed under a cooperation agreement between China and Russia - the largest such project ever. The cost is reported to be $3.2 billion, with China contributing $1.8 billion of this. Completion was delayed due to corrosion in the steam generators which resulted in some tubes having to be plugged with a net loss of capacity of about 2%. The first unit was grid connected in May 2006 and put into commercial operation in June 2007. The second was grid connected in May 2007, with commercial operation in August 2007. Design life is 40 years.

Nuclear plants under construction and planned
China Guangdong Nuclear Power (CGNPC) expected to spend $ 9.5 billion on its Ling Ao Phase II, Yangjiang and Taishan nuclear power plants by 2010 and to have 6000 MWe on line by then, with 12,000 MWe under construction. Work is under way at all these sites and others. It also planned to start on the Lufeng plant in Guangdong and Wuhu in Anhui province, but awaited NDRC approval. It is expecting to have 34,000 MWe nuclear capacity on line by 2020, providing 20% of the province's power, and 16,000 MWe under construction then. From 2010 it expects to commission three units per year and, from 2015, four units per year. CGNPC is also, due to State Council policy, committed to developing significant wind capacity through CGN Wind Co. It projects a total of 500 MWe by 2020.

np_underconstruction.png

In 2006, China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) signed agreements in Liaoning, Hebei, Shandong and Hunan provinces and six cities in Hunan, Anhui and Guangdong provinces to develop nuclear projects. CNNC has pointed out that there is room for 30 GWe of further capacity by 2020 in coastal areas and maybe more inland such as Hunan "where conditions permit". In October 2007, CNNC's list of projects included Chuanshan (Jiangsu province), Jiyang (Anhui), Hebao Island (Guangdong), Shizu (Chongqing), Xudabao (Liaoning) and Qiaofushan (Hebei) amongst others.

CNNC said in December 2006 that it planned to build four 1000 MWe units at Heyuan, inland in northeast Guangdong, at a cost of US$ 6.4 billion, but no timing was mentioned.

In mid-2009, Huaneng Nuclear Power Development Co – a subsidiary of China Huaneng Group (CHNG) – said it had opened an office in the city of Yingtan in China's inland Jiangxi province for the development of a new nuclear power plant in the area. This is one of five sites for nuclear plants after Rongcheng which CHNG was reported in May to have selected: Cangnan in Zhejiang province, Huaining in Anhui, Xuyi in Jiangsu, and Xiapu in Fujian being the others.

In November 2007, the NDRC said that the government had budgeted CNY 450 billion ($65 billion) to build nuclear power capacity by 2020. It had selected 13 coastal sites to accommodate 59.46 GWe.

In December 2009, CGNPC is reported to have signed a CNY 5.3 billion ($776 million) nuclear island installation contract with China Nuclear Power Engineering Group Co (CNPEC), apparently covering Ningde 3&4 in Fujian, Yangjiang 3&4 in Guangdong, Fangchenggang 1&2 in Guangxi, and Taishan 1&2 in Guangdong. This is the largest contract of its kind in China.

Ling Ao Phase II

While the bidding process for the delayed Generation III plants from overseas vendors was in train over more than two years (see section above on Embarking upon Generation III plants), the Guangdong Nuclear Power Group (CGNPC) signed contracts with Chinese designers and manufacturers for two CPR-1000 reactors as Phase II of the Ling Ao power station (also known as Ling Dong). Construction started in December 2005 with the 1080 MWe (gross), 1037 MWe (net) units. Unit 1 is about 50% localized and unit 2 will be 70% localized, under the project management of China Nuclear Power Engineering Corporation (CNPEC), part of CGNPC. Low-speed Arabelle turbine-generator sets are being provided by Alstom. In June 2009, the first Chinese-made reactor pressure vessel for a 1000 MWe class reactor was delivered for unit 2, from Dongfang (Guangzhou) Heavy Machinery Co. Unit 1 started up in June 2010 with grid connection in mid-July, 54 months after construction start, and entered commercial operation in September. Unit 2 is expected to commence operation in 2011.

Qinshan Phase II-3&4

Construction of the second stage of Qinshan Phase II was formally inaugurated at the end of April 2006, though first concrete had been poured for unit 3 in March. That for unit 4 was poured in January 2007. Local content of the two 650 MWe CNP-600 reactors will be more than 70% and scheduled construction time is 60 months.

Hongyanhe

This is the first nuclear power station receiving central government approval to build four units at the same time, and the first in northeast China. Construction of the first unit of the Hongyanhe nuclear power plant in Dalian, Liaoning, started in August 2007. It is the first nuclear power project in the 11th Five-Year Plan, with owner and operator being Liaoning Hongyanhe Nuclear Power Co, a joint venture of CGNPC and CPI (45% each) with Dalian Construction Investment Group. The National Nuclear Safety Administration (NNSA) issued a construction licence for units 3 & 4 in March 2009, and first concrete for unit 3 was poured soon afterwards. The cost of all four 1080 MWe CPR-1000 units in the first construction phase is put at CNY 50 billion (US$ 6.6 billion). China Nuclear Power Engineering Corporation (CNPEC), part of CGNPC, is managing the project. Shanghai Electric won a $260 million contract for equipment and Alstom is to provide the four low-speed Arabelle turbine-generator sets for $184 million. Localisation is above 70%. Commercial operation is planned for 2012-14. The project incorporates a 10,080 m3/day desalination plant.

In May 2010, the NRDC approved preliminary work on the CNY 25 billion two-unit second phase of the plant (units 5&6), and work began in July. The National Nuclear Safety Administration (NNSA) and the Environment Ministry approved the project in September 2010, construction start is expected 2011. Localisation is to be above 80% and the first unit is expected on line in 2015.

Ningde

Construction of CGNPC's six-unit Ningde nuclear power plant commenced in 2008. This is on three islands in Fuding city in northeast of Fujian province, and the first construction phase comprises four CPR-1000 units. The project was approved by the National Development & Reform Commission (NDRC) in September 2006, and local content will be about 75% for units 1&2 and 85% for units 3&4. Construction of the first unit started in February 2008, and CGNPC expects commercial operation of it after 58 months, in December 2012, with the others following to 2015. First concrete for the second unit was in November 2008, for the third early in January 2010 and for the fourth at the end of September 2010. Total cost for four units was put at CNY 51 billion ($7.2 billion). Dongfang Electric has a contract to supply turbine generators for units 1-4, using Alstom Arabelle low-speed technology. No dates yet known for units 5 & 6.

Fuqing

Construction of the six-unit Fuqing nuclear power plant 170 km south of Ningde also commenced in 2008 at Qianxe, Fuqing city in Fujian, near Fuzhou. The Fujian Fuqing Nuclear Co Ltd was set up in May 2006 with 49% held by China Huadian Corp. CNNC is responsible for the project which is using CGNPC's CPR-1000 reactors since alternatives are not licensed. First concrete for unit 1 was poured in November 2008, and for unit 2 in June 2009. The construction licence for unit 3 was issued at the end of December 2010. Commercial operation is expected over 2013 to 2016. Site works are under way for a further four units there, total expected cost for all six being CNY 100 billion ($14.6 billion).

Construction of the project is by China Nuclear Power Engineering Co. (CNPE) and the reactor pressure vessels will be supplied by China First Heavy Industries, as for Fangjiashan. In June 2008, Dongfang Electric Group announced a CNY 5 billion ($725 million) contract for Alstom Arabelle low-speed steam turbine generators for the Fuqing and Fangjiashan plants. Late in 2010, CNNC was proposing the CNP1000 for units 5 & 6, noting "pre-project under way".

Yangjiang

Yangjiang city in western Guangdong province had originally been earmarked for the country's first Generation III plants (see section above on Embarking upon Generation III plants). After plans changed in the light of pressing generation needs in the region, Yangjiang will be the second nuclear power base of the China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group (CGNPC). Development of all six units of the Yangjiang plant was approved in 2004, with CPR-1000 later confirmed as technology for it. Construction of the first of two units started in December 2008, for commercial operation in 2013. Construction on the first unit of the second pair started in November 2010, then the final two (as the second construction phase) are to follow, with the last being built by 2017. Total cost is put at CNY 70 billion ($10.1 billion).

Yangjiang 1-6 and a further 14 units, along with the six units at Daya Bay/Ling Ao, will be operated under regional Daya Bay (DNMC) management. In July 2010, Hong Kong-based power utility China Light and Power (CLP) agreed to take a 17% stake in Yangjiang – the equivalent of one reactor.

Fangjiashan

Construction of CNNC's Fangjiashan plant started at the end of December 2008. It is close to the Qinshan plant in Zhejiang province and essentially an extension of it, using two CPR-1000 reactors. Construction of the CNY 26 billion ($3.8 billion) project is by China Nuclear Power Engineering Co. (CNPE) and the reactor pressure vessels will be supplied by China First Heavy Industries, as for Fuqing. In June 2008, Dongfang Electric Group announced a CNY 5 billion ($725 million) contract for Alstom Arabelle low-speed steam turbine generators for the Fuqing and Fangjiashan plants.

Sanmen

At the end of 2006, the Westinghouse AP1000 reactor design was selected for Sanmen in Zhejiang province (and for Yangjiang in Guangdong province, with the latter site changed to Haiyang). Contracts with Westinghouse and Shaw for two units were signed in July 2007. Site works under CNNC commenced in February 2008 and an engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) contract was signed in March 2009 between SNPTC + CNNC and China Nuclear Engineering & Construction Group (CNEC) for both units, which will be overseen by Westinghouse and Shaw. Other stakeholders are Zhejiang Provincial Energy Group Co Ltd, CPI Nuclear Power Co Ltd, and China Huadian Corp. Construction on Sanmen 1 – the world's first AP1000 unit – officially commenced on 19 April 2009. The reactor is expected to begin operation in August 2013 with unit 2 about one year later. Construction on unit 2 commenced in mid-December 2009. The pressure vessel and steam generators for unit 2 are being made in China. See section on Embarking upon Generation III plants above.

Haiyang

Shangdong Nuclear Power Company (a subsidiary of CPI) signed contracts with Westinghouse and Shaw for two AP1000 units in July 2007. Work on the site is well underway and first concrete was poured in September 2009 for unit 1 and June 2010 for unit 2. The 5000 cubic metre base mat of each was placed in a single pouring of less than 48 hours. The pressure vessel and steam generators for unit 2 are being made in China. These units are expected to commence operation in May 2014 and March 2015. See section on Embarking upon Generation III plants above.

The site will eventually have six or eight units, and in March 2009, the NDRC approved preliminary works for units 3 and 4 at the CPI site, to be AP1000 units. Construction was expected to start late in 2010.

Haiyang will be a CPI training base for AP1000 staff, along with a set-up at Yantai.

Taishan

The first two EPRs planned for Taishan in Guangdong province form part of an €8 billion contract signed by Areva and the Guangdong Nuclear Power Group (CGNPC) in November 2007. The Taishan project (sometimes referred to as Yaogu) is owned by the Guangdong Taishan Nuclear Power Joint Venture Company Limited (TNPC), a joint venture between EDF (30%) and CGNPC. First concrete was poured in October 2009, and unit 1 should be commissioned early in 2014, with unit 2 in 2015. Areva is fabricating major components for both units and expects net capacity to be 1660 MWe each. See section on Embarking upon Generation III plants above.

Site works are reported to be proceeding for units 3 & 4.

Shidaowan HTR-PM

A demonstration high-temperature gas-cooled reactor plant, with twin reactor modules driving a single 210 MWe steam turbine, was approved in November 2005, to be built at Shidaowan, near Rongcheng in Weihai city, Shandong province, by Huaneng Shidaowan Nuclear Power Company Ltd (HSNPC). This joint venture is led by the China Huaneng Group Co – the country's largest generating utility but hitherto without nuclear capacity, and still without NNSA authority to build nuclear plants. Huaneng Power International is investing CNY 5 billion in the project, which received environmental clearance in March 2008. Site work is largely complete, but no NNSA licence has been issued. Subject to this, Huaneng would like to commence construction by end of 2010, for commercial operation in 2015. The EPC (engineering, procurement, construction) contract was let in October 2008, and involves Shanghai Electric Co and Harbin Power Equipment Co. A simulator contract signed in May 2010 was between HSNPC, Chinergy and CGNPC Simulator Co. This will be the demonstration plant for a further 18 modules at the site, total 3,800 MWe. (See also Research and development section in page on China's Nuclear Fuel Cycle.)

Shidaowan (PWRs)

In November 2007, China Huaneng Group (CHNG) signed an agreement with CGNPC for the Huaneng Nuclear Power Development Company to build four CPR-1000 reactors at Shidaowan, Rongcheng city, in Shandong province in an $8 billion deal. A letter of intent regarding the first two was signed in 2008. However, this has now become another AP1000 project and National Development and Reform Commission approval is being sought.

In October 2009, the Shidaowan Nuclear Power Development Limited Company was set up with capital contribution 40% CHNG, 30% Huaneng International Power Development Corp. (HIPDC) and 30% Huaneng Power International (HPI) – both being CHNG subsidiaries. Thus none of the authorised nuclear utilities is now involved, though Huaneng is linked with SNPTC on the project through the State Nuclear Demonstration Company – a 55-45% joint venture company by SNPTC and CHNG in respect to building the first CAP1400 units (see Reactor technology section above), two being envisaged after the four AP1000s.

Fangchenggang

The Fangchenggang Nuclear Power Project is located at Hongsha village, in the Beibu Gulf Economic Zone near Bailong in the coastal city of Fangchenggang in the Guangxi Autonomous Region (45 km from the Vietnam border in south China). Following an agreement in July 2006, the first stage (two 1080 MWe CPR-1000 units out of six planned) of the plant was approved by NDRC in October 2008, and again in July 2010. First concrete was poured in July 2010, and about 87% of the first two units will be sourced in China.

In October 2009, a general construction contract was signed with CNPEC. Guangxi Fangchenggang Nuclear Power Co., Ltd., a joint venture between China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group (61%) and Guangxi Investment Group (39%), is responsible for the construction and operation. The first unit is expected to begin commercial operation in 2015, the second in 2016. Total budget is CNY 70 billion ($10.26 billion), with CNY 26 billion ($3.87 billion) for stage 1. (There is also a Fangchenggang supercritical 2400 MWe coal-fired power station operated by CLP Guangxi Fangchenggang Power Company Limited, a 70:30 equity-basis joint venture between China Light & Power and Guangxi Water & Power Engineering (Group) Co., Ltd.)

Tianwan Phases II & III

In October 2006, a preliminary agreement for two further 1060 MWe AES-91 reactors as the second construction phase at Tianwan in Lianyungang city of Jiangsu province was signed with Russia's Atomstroyexport. Construction of units 3 & 4 was to start when both the first two units were commissioned, and hence in November 2007 a further agreement was signed by CNNC. Preliminary approval from NDRC was received in August 2009, and the project is expected to cost $3.8 billion.

Protracted discussion on pricing for the Russian components of the plant delayed units 3 & 4. Eventually, a contract for the engineering design of Tianwan 3 & 4 was signed in September 2010 between Jiangsu Nuclear Power Corporation and Atomstroyexport, and the general construction contract was signed in November 2010. €1.3 billion was agreed for Atomstroyexport to provide 30% of the plant including nuclear island equipment (reactor, steam generator, pressurisers, primary piping. etc.) and some related equipment. It will not act as the principal contractor, though it insists on retaining intellectual property rights. Jiangsu Nuclear Power Corporation is responsible for about 70% of the project, namely, the civil work, turbine island with equipment and related infrastructure on the site. The turbine generator sets will probably be sourced from Dongfang Electric, using Alstom Arabelle low-speed technology.

Meanwhile, Iskorskiye Zavody, part of OMZ, has started making the major components covered by the Russian €1.3 billion part of the plant. It will manufacture two VVER-1000 reactor pressure vessels with internals and upper units. Delivery should be completed in 2014. The company already took part in making the major equipment for Tianwan 1 & 2, including reactor pressure vessels.

In August 2009, the Assets Supervision & Administration Commission announced that Phase 3 of Tianwan (units 5 & 6) would start construction in October 2010 – now delayed. These are likely to be AES-2006 type, and Dongfang Electric has a contract to supply turbine generators using Alstom Arabelle low-speed technology.

Hongshiding (Rushan)

In November 2006, an agreement was signed by CNNC to proceed with the first two units of the Hongshiding nuclear plant at Hongshiding in Weihai or Rushan city, Shandong province, costing $ 3.2 billion, with construction to begin in 2009 and first power in 2015. However, it appears to have been deferred. Six units totaling 6000-8000 MWe are envisaged at the site, with Shandong Hongshiding Nuclear Power Co. Ltd as developer.

Changjiang

CNNC's Changjiang nuclear power plant on Hainan Island started construction in April 2010 for operation of the first unit at the end of 2014 and the second in 2015. It will eventually comprise four 650 MWe PWR units (CNP-600) based on those at Qinshan Phase II. Total cost of the first pair is put at about CNY 20 billion ($2.8 billion). Units 3 & 4 will be built as the second phase of construction. Huaneng Power International (HPI), part of China Huaneng Group (CHNG), holds a 30% share in Hainan Nuclear Power Co Ltd. More than 70% of the plant's equipment is to be made in China.

Sanming

In October 2009, an agreement was signed by CIAE and CNEIC (a CNNC subsidiary responsible for technology imports) with Russia's Atomstroyexport to start pre-project and design works for a commercial nuclear power plant with two BN-800 fast neutron reactors (referred to as Chinese Demonstration Fast Reactors) at Sanming city, an inland part of Fujian province. A site survey and preliminary feasibility study had been undertaken in 2007-08. CNNC in April 2010 established Sanming Nuclear Power Co Ltd as a joint venture company with the Fujian Investment & Development Corp and local government, and initiated a full feasibility study. Construction is due to start in 2013, the local content is targeted at 70%, and the first unit is to be in operation in 2018, and the second following about a year later. A second phase, with units 3 & 4, is due to commence in 2015. The plant will be similar to the OKBM Afrikantov design being built in Russia at Beloyarsk 4 and due to start up in 2012.

Xudabao/ Xudabu

CNNC's Xudabao nuclear power station is on Hulu Island in Xicheng City in coastal Liaoning province. The CNY 90 billion (US$15 billion) Xudabao project will comprise six AP1000 reactors, with units 1&2 in the US$4 billion first phase. Site preparation was to begin before the end of 2010 for construction start in 2011. CNNC's Liaoning Nuclear Power Company Ltd owns the plant, and the general contractor is China Nuclear Power Engineering Company Ltd (CNPE). In October 2010, the Northeast Electric Power Design Institute (NEPDI), Changchun, Jilin, a subsidiary of China Power Engineering Consulting Corporation (CPECC), signed a survey and engineering contract for the plant. Pre-project work was reported as under way in November 2010. China Datang holds 20% equity, and State Development and Investment Corporation (SDIC) 10%.

Lianyungang

CGNPC's Lianyungang nuclear power project is planned to have four units of 1000 MWe class to be constructed in phases. This is in Xinxu town, Lianyun district, Lianyungang city, Jiangsu province close to CNNC's Tianwan plant and involving the Jiangsu Nuclear Power Company. A proposal has been submitted to the NRDC and preparations for the project are proceeding, but prospects in the 12th Five Year Plan are uncertain.

Shanwei (Lufeng)

CGNPC's Lufeng Nuclear Power Corporation is making efforts to start on the first two units (of 6) of the Shanwei plant at Lufeng, Tianwei district in eastern Guangdong, but awaits NDRC approval. It will be a CNPEC project. In 2007, it was in the 12th Five Year Plan.

Zhangzhou

China Guodian's first nuclear power venture, with CNNC holding 51%, will initially have two AP1000 reactors, on the coast in Fujian province.

Inland nuclear power plants
Xianning

In August 2008, CGNPC and Hubei Energy Group Ltd set up the Hubei Nuclear Power Company as a joint venture and announced plans to build a nuclear power plant in Xianning city of the inland Hubei province. Site works for this plant (four AP1000 units) at Dafan in Xishui county are under way. Construction of the first two units is expected to start late in 2010 or early 2011. The reactor pressure vessel for the first unit is contracted to China First Heavy Industries. The cost of four AP1000 reactors is put at CNY 60 billion ($8.8 billion). This will be CGNPC's first AP1000 plant. A further phase is estimated to cost CNY 45 billion. Cooling towers are expected to be used.

The large pre-assembled modules that will make up the bulk of the new AP1000s are to come from a new inland facility owned by new firm Hubei Nuclear Power Equipment Company.

Reports of a Songzi plant may refer to later stages of Dafan, though possible projects in Yangxin county have been mentioned.

The Hubei Nuclear Power Co is also reported to be planning a four-unit AP1000 plant at Guangshui city in the northeast of the province.

Zhongxiang

CNNC's Hubei Zhongxiang nuclear power project is at Zhongxiang city in central Hubei, with China Datang. The 5000 MWe plant is undergoing a detailed feasibility study, but further details are unknown.

Wuhu

The Wuhu nuclear plant on the Yangtze River in the Bamaoshan area, Fanchang county, of Anhui province was planned to have four 1000 MWe CPR-1000 units, but is now designated for AP1000s to be constructed in two phases. CGNPC's proposal for two units of phase 1 has been submitted, some preparatory work is under way and the Anhui Wuhu Nuclear Power Co has been set up, with 51% CGNPC ownership. The environmental impact statement was released for public comment in January 2010. The first unit is due on line in 2016.

Jiyang

Besides Wuhu, CNNC was reported as starting a feasibility study on another four-unit nuclear plant in the Anhui province, at Jiyang in Chizhou city, in December 2008.

Pengze

CPI's Jiangxi Pengze Nuclear Power Project in Jiangxi province is to have four AP1000 reactors costing CNY 60 billion ($8.8 billion). The site has been prepared for the first two units, and safety and environmental approvals were obtained in May 2009. CPI signed the EPC contract framework for phase 1 (units 1 & 2) in August 2009, the engineering project contract was reported to be between CPI Jiangxi Nuclear Power and CPIC. The equipment procurement was reported to be between CPIC and China Power Complete Equipment. CPI aims to start construction in 2010, for 2013 start-up. The project is inland in Juijiang city, on the Yangtze River, and will use cooling towers.

Taohuajiang

CNNC's Taohuajiang nuclear power plant on the Zi River in Yiyang city, near Yueyang in inland Hunan province will be China's first inland nuclear power plant. It was expected to start construction in September 2010, and site works are under way. (It is also referred to as the Taohua [peach blossom] River project.) CNNC set up Hunan Taohuajiang Nuclear Power Co Ltd. to build and operate the plant. Initially this was to be 4 x 1000 MWe at a total cost of CNY 34 billion, but it will now be a four-unit AP1000 project costing CNY 67 billion. The main contractor is China Nuclear Industry 23rd Construction Co Ltd; China Erzhong is contracted to supply the main pressure vessel forgings, and Dongfang Electric Corp will supply other major components. Germany's GEA Group is to construct the world's largest cooling tower for unit 1: a natural draft unit some 200 metres high and 160 m in diameter, with 15,000 square metres drenching area. Subsequent towers will have increasing local content.

It was approved by the NDRC in November 2005, and in 2008 the project was approved for preliminary construction. The design by SNERDI under SNPTC and SNPDRI was submitted to the NNSA in February 2010 for licensing. A general framework agreement for construction was signed by CNNC with CNPE Corporation as EPC contractor in December 2010. The first unit is expected in commercial operation in April 2015, and the fourth in 2018.

Xiaomoshan

The Xiaomoshan nuclear power plant on the Yangtze River in Yueyang city, Huarong county, Hunan province (inland), is a priority project for CPI. It will eventually have six AP1000 reactors and be built by Hunan Nuclear Power Company Ltd in two phases. NDRC approval was given in 2006 but as of mid-2010 NNSA approval was awaited. Site preparation is underway and first concrete is expected late in 2010. The cost is put at CNY 70 billion ($10.25 billion) for the first four units, funded by SNPTC and Wuling Electric Power Development Co. (a CPI subsidiary). The Heimifeng pumped storage plant will be associated with it.

Yanjiashan/Wanan/Ji'an

In August 2009, CNNC (51%) signed a joint venture agreement with Jiangxi Ganneng Co. Ltd and Jiangxi Ganyue Expressway Co Ltd (49% between them) setting up Jiangxi Nuclear Power Co to build the Wanan Yanjiashan nuclear power project at Ji'an in the Jiangxi province. CNNC contracted a feasibility study of Yanjiashan nuclear power program in July 2010. Pre-project work was reported as under way in November 2010. (This is also reported as a CPI project.)

Hengyang

Also in August 2009, CNNC signed an agreement with Hengyang city in Hunan province to build a nuclear power plant there or nearby. This is about 200km south of its Taohuajiang project at Yiyang city in Hunan. China Guodian Corporation, one of the country's largest power producers, is involved in the project though it has no nuclear capacity so far.

Nanchun/Nanchong/Sanba, Yibin

In 2005, Sichuan proposed Nanchun/ Nanchong city east of Chengdu as a suitable site for a nuclear power plant and sought approval for it from the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), which was not given, possibly because of seismic concerns. In March 2009, the provincial government signed an agreement with CGNPC to pursue the plan for a Nanchun nuclear power plant, involving the Nuclear Power Institute of China (NPIC), headquartered in Chendu. Preliminary plans in 2008 were for a 4000-6000 MWe Sanba nuclear power plant on the Jialing River, at a cost of CNY 25 billion ($3.7 billion). Majority ownership would be CGNPC.

Another Sichuan agreement for a nuclear power plant project has been signed between CNNC and Yibin city, south of Chengdu.

Xiangtan

In December 2009, China Huadian Corp signed an agreement with Xiangtan city government in Hunan to undertake studies for a CNY 60 billion power plant comprising four 1250 MWe reactors. A refined proposal is expected in September 2010. This will apparently be the fourth nuclear project for China Huadian.

Longyou/ Zhexi

In October 2008 a project proposal was submitted to NDRC by CNNC and Zhejiang Energy Group Co Ltd for a western Zhejiang nuclear power plant in Hangzhou with four AP1000 reactors, though earlier reports had four 1000 MWe units to be built in two phases from late 2010. The proposed site is Tuanshi, Longyou county. Pre-project work was reported as under way in November 2010.

Jingyu

CPI plans to spend CNY 85 billion to build the six-unit Jingyu nuclear power plant near Baishan, in Jilin province, with four AP1000 units to be in stage 1. The project is still in the preliminary feasibility stage, though site preperation is now underway.

Nanyang

To be a six-unit CNNC plant in Henan province. Pre-project work was reported as under way in November 2010.


--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Further Information
Notesa. The CNP series of reactors is also referred to as the CP series. [Back]

b. The ACP600 design appears to be an advanced version of the CNP-600. CNNC expects to complete development of the ACP600 design by 2013. [Back]

c. Hong Kong gets much of its power from mainland China, in particular about 70% of the output from Daya Bay's 1888 MWe net nuclear capacity is sent there. The Hong Kong government plans to close down its coal-fired plants, and by 2020 to get 50% of its power from mainland nuclear, 40% from gas locally and 3% from renewables. Hong Kong utility China Light & Power has equity in CGNPC's Daya Bay and Yangjiang power plants, and may take equity in a further CGNPC nuclear plant. [Back]

References1. Cost of Pollution in China: Economic Estimates of Physical Damages, The World Bank, State Environmental Protection Administration, P. R. China (February 2007) [Back]

2. Platts Power in Asia, 21 January 2010 [Back]

3. International Energy Outlook 2009, Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, DOE/EIA-0484(2009), available at EIA - 2010 International Energy Outlook [Back]

4. APWR and HTR are listed into the national program, CNNC news release (24 February 2006) [Back]

5. Criticality for fast reactor World Nuclear News (22 July 2010) [Back]

6. 2007 Annual Report of China Power Investment Corporation (26 November 2008) [Back]

7. Unit 3 at Qinshan Phase II Nuclear Power Station begins operation People's Daily Online (22 October 2010) [Back]

General sources
China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group website (www.cgnpc.com.cn)

China National Nuclear Corporation website (???)

Country Analysis Briefs: China, Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/index.html

Uranium 2007: Resources, Production and Demand, OECD Nuclear Energy Agency and International Atomic Energy Agency, 2008 (ISBN: 9789264047662)

Nicobar Group website (Nicobar Group | Home)

Dynabond PowerTech website (Dynabond Powertech Service)

Proceedings of the World Nuclear Association's China International Nuclear Symposium, held in Beijing on 23-25 November 2010.
 
Back
Top Bottom