Space Warfare, Technology and Exploration

[jamahir]

Future astronauts could use methane to make rocket fuel on Mars

By Chelsea Gohd 08 January 2021

This concept design shows future astronauts on Mars. A new study shows how future astronauts might use local materials to make methane-based rocket fuel to get home. (Image: © NASA)

How will future astronauts get back home to Earth from Mars? According to a new study, they could make rocket fuel from the methane that's already on the Red Planet.

Researchers have devised a new way to create methane-based rocket fuel that they hope could make return trips from Mars far more feasible. This method was previously theorized by Elon Musk and engineers at SpaceX who considered ways to use carbon dioxide and water from ice on Mars to have the necessary carbon and hydrogen necessary to create methane.

So, in theory, future astronauts could use this technique to turn local Martian materials like ice and carbon dioxide to make rocket fuel for a return trip home. This new method is only a "proof of concept" right now, meaning it has only been tested in labs but not in real-world conditions.

Still, while "lots of engineering and research is needed before this can be fully implemented," Huolin Xin, a physicist at the University of California, Irvine who led this research, said in a statement. "But the results are very promising."

Related: How living on Mars could challenge future astronauts (infographic)

To create this new method, the team took an existing two-step method used to turn water into breathable oxygen on the International Space Station and made it into a one-step process. They did this using a single-atom zinc catalyst.

"The zinc is fundamentally a great catalyst," Xin said in the statement. "It has time, selectivity and portability — a big plus for space travel."

By narrowing a two-step process down to one step, it makes the mechanism more compact and portable, and thus, easier to transport for use on Mars, according to the statement.

This new method takes atomically dispersed zinc, which acts as a catalyst for the reaction, helping to create methane from carbon dioxide. The process, using this specialized catalyst, "efficiently converts CO2 into methane," Xin said.

Many launch vehicles today don't use methane-based rocket fuel, so this process would have to be compatible with future propulsion technologies. But, methane-based fuel could have a number of advantages over liquid hydrogen fuel that's used by companies like Boeing and Lockheed. Some types of rocket fuel leave carbon residue in rocket engines that needs to be cleaned, something that would be difficult (not simply not possible) to accomplish on Mars, according to the same statement.

However, there are some companies that are already hopping on-board to develop and use methane-based rocket fuel. For example, SpaceX's Starship's Raptor engines, Blue Origin's BE-4 engine and Firefly Alpha are all working to use methane-based fuel.

Email Chelsea Gohd at cgohd@space.com or follow her on Twitter @chelsea_gohd. Follow us on Twitter @Spacedotcom and on Facebook.

---

@ps3linux @Hamartia Antidote @Fawadqasim1, do you know what the below underlined means ?

"The zinc is fundamentally a great catalyst," Xin said in the statement. "It has time, selectivity and portability — a big plus for space travel."

 

[jamahir]

Autonomous in-space assembly and manufacturing moves closer to reality

by Staff Writers
Ipswich MA (SPX) Jan 11, 2021

​

illustration only

COSM Advanced Manufacturing Systems will begin working on final development and build of electron beam 3D metal printing systems for a variety of future in-space, lunar, and Martian applications. The work is funded by a SBIR contract from NASA to support the Artemis program's return to the Moon.

The technology advanced by COSM uses an electron beam to deposit metal from a spool of wire into a large complex part. Capitalizing on decades of experience using charged particle beams systems for imaging and metrology in the semiconductor industry, the new system will automatically monitor and adjust the 3D print process as it occurs.

"Producing large metal parts autonomously to verifiable specifications and quality in-space will be an enabling part of man's permanent presence on the Moon and further missions to Mars," said Richard Comunale, company founder and CEO.

"This complex task is made possible by fundamental technology developed by COSM with support from NASA's Langley Research Center. This next step in the technology development will result in the core system components validated for launch and operation in transit, on the Moon and Mars. This is an incredible opportunity and an honor for our team to play a role in NASA's Artemis program."

This effort is a follow-on to work COSM completed with NASA Langley on their Electron Beam Free Form Fabrication (EBF3) program, which uses focused electron beams to perform additive manufacturing (3D printing) of metal. Under NASA's Space Technology Mission Directorate (STMD), COSM was previously part of a team of companies in a public-private partnership to establish a Commercial Infrastructure for Robotic Assembly and Services (CIRAS) in space.

The CIRAS program advanced key technologies that are the basis for this next step for in-orbit manufacturing and assembly of large space structures that will help the agency meet its goals for robotic and human exploration of the solar system.

"We are excited by the prospect of adding COSM's high precision electron beam capabilities into the EBF3 process to enhance in-space welding and additive manufacturing for future exploration missions. COSM's experience enables integrated visualization and sensing in real time to control and inspect work being performed in remote areas," added Karen Taminger, senior materials research engineer and technical lead for metal additive manufacturing research at NASA Langley.

 

[Tom-tom]

Has this woman just invented the rocket that will take us to Mars?
The unique design of the plasma thruster could enable spacecraft to travel to distant planets much faster than they can now.
Saturday 30 January 2021 06:12, UK

PPPL physicist Fatima Ebrahimi in front of an artist's conception of a fusion rocket. Credit: Elle Starkman (PPPL Office of Communications) and ITER
Image:
Dr Fatima Ebrahimi in front of an artist's conceptof a fusion rocket. Pic: Elle Starkman/PPPL
Dr Fatima Ebrahimi has invented a new fusion rocket thruster concept which could power humans to Mars and beyond.

The physicist who works for the US Department of Energy's Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL) designed the rocket which will use magnetic fields to shoot plasma particles - electrically charged gas - into the vacuum of space.

According to Newton's second and third laws of motion, the conservation of momentum would mean the rocket was propelled forwards - and at speeds 10 times faster than comparable devices.

Mars is also known as the red planet
Image:
The invention could enable humans to travel to Mars
While current space-proven plasma propulsion engines use electric fields to propel the particles, the new rocket design would accelerate them using magnetic reconnection.

This process is found throughout the universe but is most observable to humanity on the surface of the sun. When magnetic field lines converge there, before separating and then reconnect again, they product an enormous amount of energy.

Advertisement

Similar energy is produced inside torus-shaped machines known as tokamaks, a magnetic confinement device which is also a leading candidate for a practical nuclear fusion reactor.

"I've been cooking this concept for a while," said PPPL's principal research physicist Dr Fatima Ebrahimi, whose paper detailing the invention has been published in the Journal of Plasma Physics.

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"I had the idea in 2017 while sitting on a deck and thinking about the similarities between a car's exhaust and the high-velocity exhaust particles created by PPPL's National Spherical Torus Experiment (NSTX)," she said.

The NSTX is the forerunner of the laboratory's present flagship fusion facility, which is being investigated with funding by the US Department of Energy.

"During its operation, this tokamak produces magnetic bubbles called plasmoids that move at around 20 kilometres per second, which seemed to me a lot like thrust," Dr Ebrahimi added.

Nuclear fusion is the power that drives the sun and stars. It combines light elements in the form of plasma - the hot, charged state of matter composed of free electrons and atomic nuclei that represents 99% of the visible universe - to generate massive amounts of energy.

If a reactor functioning on the same principles could be recreated on Earth, it would provide a "virtually inexhaustible supply of power to generate electricity" according to the PPPl.

Handout from the NOAA/National Weather Service's Space Weather Prediction Center shows a solar flare erupting from the sun late January 23 2012. The flare is reportedly the largest since 2005 and is expected to affect GPS systems and other communications when it reaches the Earth's magnetic field in the morning of January 24. (Photo by NOAA/National Weather Service's Space Weather Prediction Center via Getty Images)
Image:
The technology uses the same process we see in solar flares
Dr Ebrahimi's new concept performs much better than existing plasma thrusters in computer simulations - generating exhaust with velocities of hundreds of kilometres per second, 10 times faster than those of other thrusters.

That faster velocity at the beginning of a spacecraft's journey could bring the outer planets within reach of astronauts, the physicist said.

"Long-distance travel takes months or years because the specific impulse of chemical rocket engines is very low, so the craft takes a while to get up to speed," she said.

"But if we make thrusters based on magnetic reconnection, then we could conceivably complete long-distance missions in a shorter period of time."

She stressed that her thruster concept stems directly from her research into fusion energy. "This work was inspired by past fusion work and this is the first time that plasmoids and reconnection have been proposed for space propulsion," Dr Ebrahimi said. "The next step is building a prototype!"

Has this woman just invented the rocket that will take us to Mars?

The unique design of the plasma thruster could enable spacecraft to travel to distant planets much faster than they can now.

news-sky-com.cdn.ampproject.org

Most likely she has a muslim upbringing, heritage or is muslim. I am sure of her origin.

 

[jamahir]

Has this woman just invented the rocket that will take us to Mars?
The unique design of the plasma thruster could enable spacecraft to travel to distant planets much faster than they can now.
Saturday 30 January 2021 06:12, UK

PPPL physicist Fatima Ebrahimi in front of an artist's conception of a fusion rocket. Credit: Elle Starkman (PPPL Office of Communications) and ITER
Image:
Dr Fatima Ebrahimi in front of an artist's conceptof a fusion rocket. Pic: Elle Starkman/PPPL
Dr Fatima Ebrahimi has invented a new fusion rocket thruster concept which could power humans to Mars and beyond.

The physicist who works for the US Department of Energy's Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL) designed the rocket which will use magnetic fields to shoot plasma particles - electrically charged gas - into the vacuum of space.

According to Newton's second and third laws of motion, the conservation of momentum would mean the rocket was propelled forwards - and at speeds 10 times faster than comparable devices.

Mars is also known as the red planet
Image:
The invention could enable humans to travel to Mars
While current space-proven plasma propulsion engines use electric fields to propel the particles, the new rocket design would accelerate them using magnetic reconnection.

This process is found throughout the universe but is most observable to humanity on the surface of the sun. When magnetic field lines converge there, before separating and then reconnect again, they product an enormous amount of energy.

Advertisement

Similar energy is produced inside torus-shaped machines known as tokamaks, a magnetic confinement device which is also a leading candidate for a practical nuclear fusion reactor.

"I've been cooking this concept for a while," said PPPL's principal research physicist Dr Fatima Ebrahimi, whose paper detailing the invention has been published in the Journal of Plasma Physics.

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"I had the idea in 2017 while sitting on a deck and thinking about the similarities between a car's exhaust and the high-velocity exhaust particles created by PPPL's National Spherical Torus Experiment (NSTX)," she said.

The NSTX is the forerunner of the laboratory's present flagship fusion facility, which is being investigated with funding by the US Department of Energy.

"During its operation, this tokamak produces magnetic bubbles called plasmoids that move at around 20 kilometres per second, which seemed to me a lot like thrust," Dr Ebrahimi added.

Nuclear fusion is the power that drives the sun and stars. It combines light elements in the form of plasma - the hot, charged state of matter composed of free electrons and atomic nuclei that represents 99% of the visible universe - to generate massive amounts of energy.

If a reactor functioning on the same principles could be recreated on Earth, it would provide a "virtually inexhaustible supply of power to generate electricity" according to the PPPl.

Handout from the NOAA/National Weather Service's Space Weather Prediction Center shows a solar flare erupting from the sun late January 23 2012. The flare is reportedly the largest since 2005 and is expected to affect GPS systems and other communications when it reaches the Earth's magnetic field in the morning of January 24. (Photo by NOAA/National Weather Service's Space Weather Prediction Center via Getty Images)
Image:
The technology uses the same process we see in solar flares
Dr Ebrahimi's new concept performs much better than existing plasma thrusters in computer simulations - generating exhaust with velocities of hundreds of kilometres per second, 10 times faster than those of other thrusters.

That faster velocity at the beginning of a spacecraft's journey could bring the outer planets within reach of astronauts, the physicist said.

"Long-distance travel takes months or years because the specific impulse of chemical rocket engines is very low, so the craft takes a while to get up to speed," she said.

"But if we make thrusters based on magnetic reconnection, then we could conceivably complete long-distance missions in a shorter period of time."

She stressed that her thruster concept stems directly from her research into fusion energy. "This work was inspired by past fusion work and this is the first time that plasmoids and reconnection have been proposed for space propulsion," Dr Ebrahimi said. "The next step is building a prototype!"

Has this woman just invented the rocket that will take us to Mars?

The unique design of the plasma thruster could enable spacecraft to travel to distant planets much faster than they can now.

news-sky-com.cdn.ampproject.org

How is her engine different from the existing VASIMR engine which also uses magnetically-propelled plasma to propel a craft ? It seems that VASIMR is not being used in current spacecraft because the engine needs lot of electrical power which seems to be beyond what solar cells can provide.

---

@Hamartia Antidote @ps3linux @Itachi @newb3e, below is a three-year-old concept prototype of a future manned Mars rover. Though it doesn't seem to have an airlock :

 

[jamahir]

@Dark1, above post.

 

[Dark1]

@Dark1, above post.

Scifi

 

[jamahir]

Scifi

No, the rover is real, though it will have to be fitted with an airlock and I think the actual Mars version will have to be bigger so that it can carry four people maybe.

 

[Dark1]

No, the rover is real, though it will have to be fitted with an airlock and I think the actual Mars version will have to be bigger so that it can carry four people maybe.

Fusion ? Is scifi.

 

[jamahir]

Fusion ? Is scifi.

Ah, you are talking about the engine conceptualized by Fatima Ebrahimi. I don't know if there is a working prototype.

Though the VASIMR engine that I mentioned has a few prototypes. This is the Wikipedia page and this is the developer company's website. I see that the website has changed since my last visit some years ago.

I quote from the Wiki page :

The VASIMR method for heating plasma was originally developed during nuclear fusion research. VASIMR is intended to bridge the gap between high thrust, low specific impulse chemical rockets and low thrust, high specific impulse electric propulsion, but has not yet demonstrated high thrust. The VASIMR concept originated in 1977 with former NASA astronaut Franklin Chang Díaz, who has been developing the technology ever since.

Advantages

In contrast to the typical cyclotron resonance heating processes, VASIMR ions are immediately ejected from the magnetic nozzle before they achieve thermalized distribution. Based on novel theoretical work in 2004 by Alexey V. Arefiev and Boris N. Breizman of University of Texas at Austin, virtually all of the energy in the ion cyclotron wave is uniformly transferred to ionized plasma in a single-pass cyclotron absorption process. This allows for ions to leave the magnetic nozzle with a very narrow energy distribution, and for significantly simplified and compact magnet arrangement in the engine.[3]

VASIMR does not use electrodes; instead, it magnetically shields plasma from most hardware parts, thus eliminating electrode erosion, a major source of wear in ion engines.[6] Compared to traditional rocket engines with very complex plumbing, high performance valves, actuators and turbopumps, VASIMR has almost no moving parts (apart from minor ones, like gas valves), maximizing long term durability.[citation needed]

Disadvantages

According to Ad Astra as of 2015, the VX-200 engine requires 200 kW electrical power to produce 5 N of thrust, or 40 kW/N.[5] In contrast, the conventional NEXT ion thruster produces 0.327 N with only 7.7 kW, or 24 kW/N.[5] Electrically speaking, NEXT is almost twice as efficient, and successfully completed a 48,000 hours (5.5 years) test in December 2009.[7][8]

New problems also emerge with VASIMR, such as interaction with strong magnetic fields and thermal management. The inefficiency with which VASIMR operates generates substantial waste heat that needs to be channeled away without creating thermal overload and thermal stress. The superconducting electromagnetsnecessary to contain hot plasma generate tesla-range magnetic fields[9] that can cause problems with other onboard devices and produce unwanted torque by interaction with the magnetosphere. To counter this latter effect, two thruster units can be packaged with magnetic fields oriented in opposite directions, making a net zero-torque magnetic quadrupole.[10]

The required power generation technology for fast interplanetary travel does not currently exist and is not feasible with current state-of-the-art technology.

About the last "not feasible" part there is a new development in battery technology. It is called NDB ( Nano Diamond Battery ) which uses Carbon-14 residual radioactive nuclear waste material from nuclear fission reactors. This is the website of the company that is developing the prototype. The company says the battery when developed can be scaled to any application : from heart pacemaker to lamp to spacecraft power generator. So, perhaps the NDB battery can be used to power the VASIMR engine or the fusion one being conceptualized by Fatima Ebrahimi.

 

[Dark1]

Ah, you are talking about the engine conceptualized by Fatima Ebrahimi. I don't know if there is a working prototype.

Though the VASIMR engine that I mentioned has a few prototypes. This is the Wikipedia page and this is the developer company's website. I see that the website has changed since my last visit some years ago.

I quote from the Wiki page :


About the last "not feasible" part there is a new development in battery technology. It is called NDB ( Nano Diamond Battery ) which uses Carbon-14 residual radioactive nuclear waste material from nuclear fission reactors. This is the website of the company that is developing the prototype. The company says the battery when developed can be scaled to any application : from heart pacemaker to lamp to spacecraft power generator. So, perhaps the NDB battery can be used to power the VASIMR engine or the fusion one being conceptualized by Fatima Ebrahimi.

Fusion generators are being developed since the last 50 years. Always in process.

 

[jamahir]

Fusion generators are being developed since the last 50 years. Always in process.

Is this a fusion generator of the ITER type ?

And the below quotes might be significant. Second quote is from this page of the VASIMR engine's developer company :

"During its operation, this tokamak produces magnetic bubbles called plasmoids that move at around 20 kilometres per second, which seemed to me a lot like thrust," Dr Ebrahimi added.

• RF Power: 200 kW;
• thrust: 5.7 N;
• exhaust speed: 50 km/s;
• thruster efficiency: 72 % (jet power divided by coupled RF power).

 

[jamahir]

Could Doomsday Come From a Reversal of the Magnetic Poles?

Lessons from the Laschamps Excursion 42,000 years ago

The Earth’s magnetic field does more than just cause auroral light shows. Could it play a role in extinctions, too? (NASA Astronaut Jack Fischer, ISS Expedition 52)

By Dirk Schulze-Makuch
AIRSPACEMAG.COM
FEBRUARY 24, 2021

After studying the reversal of Earth’s magnetic pole known to have occurred 42,000 years ago, a science team led by Alan Cooper from the South Australian Museum in Adelaide, Australia concludes that the event had significant environmental repercussions, especially at lower and mid-latitudes. That time period, known as the Laschamps Excursion, had anomalously high radiocarbon concentrations in the atmosphere, which were linked to a higher influx of radiation. When the reversal occurred, within a span of about 1,000 years, Earth’s magnetic field weakened drastically and the magnetic North and South Poles flipped, temporarily leaving surface-dwelling organisms largely unprotected from high influxes of both ionic and ultraviolet radiation.

Previous studies had not found much of an environmental impact from the flip. But that conclusion was based primarily on ice cores from Greenland and Antarctica, which biased it toward higher latitudes. Cooper and his colleagues took more representative samples from all over the world, including from tree rings in New Zealand. They conclude that the magnetic reversal was in fact related to the extinction of a large fraction of large animals at the time, as well as the disappearance of the Neanderthals and even the appearance of cave art.

If the connection with mass extinctions is true, it’s a cause for concern. Earth’s magnetic field has weakened nearly 10 percent in the last 200 years, and the position of the magnetic North Pole has changed quite a bit. A magnetic reversal may be imminent. One can only imagine what trouble such an event could cause, with more solar and cosmic radiation hitting Earth’s surface. Potentially, we could see an increase in cancer rates, environmental disturbances, and the failure of power grids. Do we need to worry?

Yes and no. Yes, because our energy supply is increasingly fragile (see the recent effects of icy weather on Texas’s power grid), and much of our communication is based on satellites. If those are knocked out by solar storms, the effect on society could be substantial. No GPS, no social media, electrical power outages. Do I need to go on?

No, because a reversal may not necessarily have a big environmental impact after all. There have been other periods of magnetic weakening and reversals—the last one was 34,000 years ago—with apparently little effect, judging from the fossil record. During the Laschamps Excursion, or Adams Event as the authors call it, Earth was still in the grips of an ice age, with much of Europe and North America under glaciers. The Sun’s activity also was much lower at that time—a so-called Grand Solar Minimum, which happens periodically. So any extinction that occurred during that period may have been more due to the ice age than the magnetic reversal. Or maybe it was a combined effect. Humans may have retreated to caves because of both the cold and the higher radiation levels, with cold probably being a more important motivating factor.

I also don’t see how the Neanderthal extinction would be related to the environmental stress 42,000 years ago. If anything, Neanderthals, with their bulkier bodies, should have been more cold-adapted than Homo sapiens, who originated from East Africa. Not to mention that recent research shows that the Neanderthals did not actually go extinct during that time period.

There’s no doubt that higher radiation levels would impact the biosphere, but probably more on the individual rather than the species level. That’s true for humans, too. But our greatest vulnerability may lie in our technology, on which our society has become so dependent.

 

[Itachi]

 

[Hamartia Antidote]

Well this looks like an appropriate thread to start posting NASA history...

Up, up and away: Space Shuttle Columbia first launched 40 years ago today

Space Shuttle Columbia made its first voyage into space 40 years ago today on April 12, 1981, starting the shuttle program’s 30-year run as NASA’s workhorse of human space flight. At 7 …

www.orlandosentinel.com

Space Shuttle Columbia launches into space for the first time on April 12, 1981. With astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen aboard, Columbia began the 30-year run of NASA's space shuttle program. (RED HUBER / ORLANDO SENTINEL)

Space Shuttle Columbia made its first voyage into space 40 years ago today on April 12, 1981, starting the shuttle program’s 30-year run as NASA’s workhorse of human space flight.
At 7 a.m. – right on schedule – Columbia roared off launch pad 39A at Kennedy Space Center with veteran astronaut John Young of Orlando and space rookie Robert Crippen aboard.
It was the second attempt at Columbia’s first flight after a computer error scrubbed the initial planned launch two days earlier. The delay produced an unplanned but notable cosmic happenstance: the world’s first reusable space plane launched 20 years to the day that Russian Yuri Gagarin became the first human to fly into space.

Columbia’s debut mission would be the first of 135 for the shuttle program, which would end on July 21, 2011, when shuttle Atlantis landed at Kennedy Space Center.

In between the two milestone flights, the five space shuttles would deliver some of America’s greatest space triumphs and tragedies.

Celebrated were shuttle missions that brought the first American women and persons of color to space, that placed the Hubble Space Telescope into orbit and that delivered most of the modules for the International Space Station.

Mourned were the losses of the seven-person crews of shuttle Challenger, which exploded during launch on Jan. 28, 1986, and of Columbia itself, which was destroyed during its return to Earth at the end of its 28th mission on Feb. 1, 2003.

To commemorate Columbia’s first launch, here is a reprint of part of our Orlando Sentinel coverage from 40 years ago, reported by staff writer Peter Larson on the front page of our April 13, 1981 issue:

‘One fantastic ride’
Unfettered at last from its launch pad, the overdue shuttle finally roared into orbit Sunday morning in a flight so smooth it left launch crews astonished.

Hailed by 600,000 spectators and monitored by a Russian trawler, Columbia bolted skyward on schedule at 7 a.m., rolled upside down, and reached orbit nine minutes later. After 2-1/2 years of waiting, the interminable countdown was over.
America’s stumbling space program, after a six-year intermission, seemed as sure-footed as ever.

“It was worth the wait,” shuttle commander John Young said during his first hours of flight. “The vehicle is performing just like a champ. It was as smooth as it possibly could go . . . better than anyone expected on the first flight.”

Young, 50, who set a human record with his fifth blastoff into space, had a heartbeat of 75 to 80 beats a minute during liftoff. Crippen’s heartbeat pulsed at 130 beats per minute during the 43-year-old astronaut’s first minutes in space.


“That was one fantastic ride; I highly recommend it,” Crippen said as he entered space for the first time. “Oh, man, that is so pretty.”
“It sure hasn’t changed any,” Young said. “It’s something else out there.”

George Page, NASA director of shuttle operations, called it a “picture book” launch, and agreed that it went much better than launch crews expected.

In the launch firing room, 150 engineers waved American flags and cheered. But no sooner was the shuttle up than Mission Control discovered the potential problem with the [thermal protection] tiles, which they noticed missing 90 minutes after launch as Crippen and Young opened the Columbia’s cargo bay doors for the first time.

Scanning the far end of the 60-foot bay, television cameras aboard the spacecraft revealed 13 to 15 tile cavities atop the maneuvering engine pods that power the shuttle in space.

At Mission Control, experts theorized that a sonic shock wave shook the tiles loose shortly after launch. The tiles protect the shuttle from Intense heat when it re-enters Earth’s atmosphere.
Downplaying the damage, NASA officials said none of the tiles was in a critical area and would not prevent the Columbia from landing safely.

“There Is no reason to believe we have more serious problems anywhere else,” said flight director Neil Hutchinson. “People are not scurrying around thinking doomsday things.”

Hutchinson said a contingency team would study Air Force photographs of the orbiter shot from Malabar, south of Melbourne, and the Hawaiian island of Maui.

The team also will investigate detailed films of the engine pods taken during the launch, information supplied by contractors, and data from instruments that record heat on the shuttle’s surfaces during launch.

Of all the trials and tribulations to beset the $10 billion shuttle, the tiles have been the greatest headache.

Shortly after the shuttle arrived at the space center two years ago, it became apparent that most of the thermal protection work had to be pulled off, strengthened, and glued back on again.

Fabricated by Lockheed Corp. and installed by Rockwell, 30,922 protective tiles coat the shell of the orbiter like a heat-resistant skin.

Other problems encountered during the first day in apace were minor. A data-gathering device that monitors the spacecraft’s performance began running continuously and had to be turned on and off by the astronauts with a circuit breaker. Communication was also difficult, and Hutchinson blamed the problem on the shuttle’s antenna being blocked from ground stations by the orbiter itself.

The Columbia is the largest, most sophisticated manned spacecraft ever launched, capable of carrying up to seven astronauts in normal flights and 10 in an emergency, plus a cargo the size of a bus.

Crippen and Young awoke at 2:05 a.m. After a traditional steak and eggs breakfast at 2:45 a.m., they suited up and crawled into the Columbia at 4:23 a.m.

The five anti-social flight computers that delayed Friday’s launch conversed fluently during the Sunday countdown.
After reading a greeting from President Reagan, George Page bid the astronauts farewell. “We do wish you an awful lot of luck,” Page said.

At T minus seven minutes the crew’s access arm was drawn back and Crippen and Young lowered the visors on their space helmets.

At T minus five minutes, unhooked from its last earthly umbilical cords, the Columbia began generating its own electrical power.


The last seconds of the count were echoed by thousands of voices in the press grandstand and the VIP reviewing area.
“Smooth sailing, baby,” Chuck Hannon, test conductor for Rockwell International, told the astronauts.

During one of their first transmissions from space, Crippen and Young noted their cockpit was filled with floating dust and debris that made it hard to work.

At their first break period, they used a “vacuum cleaner” to sweep up the trash.

The two solid rocket boosters, jettisoned after two minutes, splashed down 175 miles at sea to be picked up by two recovery ships.

A spokesman for the manufacturer said the rockets were slightly damaged but appeared to be reusable.

One of the two recovery ships, the UTC Liberty, escorted a nearby Russian trawler from the splashdown site, NASA officials reported.

Launches and orbital flights[edit]

�

Order	Launch date	Shuttle	Crew[a]	Duration	Launch Pad	Landing Site	Notes	Sources
1	12 April 1981 12:00:04 UTC 07:00:04 EST	Columbia	2	02d 06h	LC-39A	Edwards	First reusable orbital spacecraft flight Maiden flight of Columbia	[18][19][20]
2	12 November 1981 15:10:00 UTC 10:10:00 EST	Columbia	2	02d 06h	LC-39A	Edwards	First reuse of a manned orbital space vehicle First test of Canadarm robot arm Truncated due to fuel cell problem	[21][22][23]
3	22 March 1982 16:00:00 UTC 11:00:00 EST	Columbia	2	08d 00h	LC-39A	White Sands	Shuttle R&D flight First and only landing at White Sands, New Mexico	[24][25][26]
4	27 June 1982 15:00:00 UTC 11:00:00 EDT	Columbia	2	07d 01h	LC-39A	Edwards	Last shuttle R&D flight First Department of Defense (DoD) payload	[27][28][29][30]
5	11 November 1982 12:19:00 UTC 07:19:00 EST	Columbia	4	05d 02h	LC-39A	Edwards	Multiple comsat deployments First Extravehicular activity of program canceled due to suit problems	[31][32][33][34]
6	4 April 1983 18:30:00 UTC 13:30:00 EST	Challenger	4	05d 00h	LC-39A	Edwards	Tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS-A) deployment Maiden flight of Challenger First Space Shuttle Extravehicular activity	[35][36]
7	18 June 1983 11:33:00 UTC 07:33:00 EDT	Challenger	5	06d 02h	LC-39A	Edwards	First American woman in space, Sally Ride Multiple comsat deployments First deployment and retrieval of a Shuttle Pallet Satellite	[37][38]
8	30 August 1983 06:32:00 UTC 02:32:00 EDT	Challenger	5	06d 01h	LC-39A	Edwards	Comsat deployment First flight of an African American in space, Guion Bluford Test of robot arm on heavy payloads with Payload Flight Test Article First night landing	[39][40]
9	28 November 1983 16:00:00 UTC 11:00:00 EST	Columbia	6	10d 07h	LC-39A	Edwards	First Spacelab mission Flight of Ulf Merbold First European Space Agency Astronaut on a shuttle mission	[41][42]
10	3 February 1984 13:00:00 UTC 08:00:00 EST	Challenger	5	07d 23h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Deployed two Comsats First untethered spacewalk by Bruce McCandless II with Manned Maneuvering Unit First landing at Kennedy Space Center Dry run of equipment for Solar Maximum Mission rescue	[43][44]
11	6 April 1984 13:58:00 UTC 08:58:00 EST	Challenger	5	06d 23h	LC-39A	Edwards	Solar Maximum Mission servicing First satellite rescue by astronauts Long Duration Exposure Facility deployment	[45][46][47]
12	30 August 1984 12:41:50 UTC 08:41:50 EDT	Discovery	6	06d 00h	LC-39A	Edwards	Multiple comsat deployments First flight of Discovery Test of OAST-1 Solar Array	[48][49]
13	5 October 1984 11:03:00 UTC 07:03:00 EDT	Challenger	7	08d 05h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Earth Radiation Budget Satellite deployment First flight of two women in space, Sally Ride and Kathryn Sullivan First spacewalk by American woman, Sullivan First Canadian in space, Marc Garneau	[50][51]
14	8 November 1984 12:15:00 UTC 07:15:00 EST	Discovery	5	07d 23h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Multiple comsat deployments Retrieval of two other comsats (Palapa B2 and Westar VI), which were subsequently refurbished on Earth and reflown	[52][53]
15	24 January 1985 19:50:00 UTC 14:50:00 EST	Discovery	5	03d 01h	LC-39A	Kennedy	First classified Department of Defense (DoD) mission Magnum satellite deployment	[28][54][55]
16	12 April 1985 13:59:05 UTC 08:59:05 EST	Discovery	7	06d 23h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Multiple comsat deployments First flight of a sitting politician in space, Jake Garn First impromptu Extravehicular activity of program to fix Syncom F3 (Leasat 3)	[56][57]
17	29 April 1985 16:02:18 UTC 12:02:18 EDT	Challenger	7	07d 00h	LC-39A	Edwards	First mission with Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration Conducted experiments in microgravity	[58][59]
18	17 June 1985 11:33:00 UTC 07:33:00 EDT	Discovery	7	07d 01h	LC-39A	Edwards	Multiple comsat deployments Flight of first member of royalty, Saudi, Muslim, and Arab in space, Sultan bin Salman Al Saud	[60][61]
19	29 July 1985 22:00:00 UTC 18:00:00 EDT	Challenger	7	07d 22h	LC-39A	Edwards	Spacelab mission Abort to Orbit. Faulty temperature sensor incorrectly indicated that fuel turbine discharge temperature exceeded the limit. Therefore, one main engine was shut down at T+345 s, resulting in a much lower orbit than planned. All mission objectives achieved	[62][63]
20	27 August 1985 10:58:01 UTC 06:58:01 EDT	Discovery	5	07d 02h	LC-39A	Edwards	Multiple comsat deployments Rescue of Syncom F3 (Leasat-3)	[64][65]
21	3 October 1985 15:15:30 UTC 11:15:30 EDT	Atlantis	5	04d 01h	LC-39A	Edwards	Second classified DoD mission Defense Satellite Communications System satellite deployment First flight of Atlantis	[28][66][67]
22	30 October 1985 17:00:00 UTC 12:00:00 EST	Challenger	8	07d 00h	LC-39A	Edwards	Largest crew on a spaceflight Third flight of Spacelab Spacelab-D1 microgravity experiments Mission funded by West Germany Last successful mission of Challenger First Dutchman in space, Wubbo Ockels	[68][69]
23	26 November 1985 24:29:00 UTC 19:29:00 EST	Atlantis	7	06d 21h	LC-39A	Edwards	Multiple comsat deployment EASE/ACCESS experiment First Mexican in space, Rodolfo Neri Vela	[70][71]
24	12 January 1986 11:55:00 UTC 06:55:00 EST	Columbia	7	06d 02h	LC-39A	Edwards	Comsat deployment Flight of US Representative Bill Nelson Last successful mission before STS-51-L	[72][73]
25	28 January 1986 16:38:00 UTC 11:38:00 EST	Challenger	7	00d 00h 01m 13s	LC-39B	Did not land https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_missions#cite_note-sts-loss-landingsite-75

25	28 January 1986 16:38:00 UTC 11:38:00 EST	Challenger	7	00d 00h 01m 13s	LC-39B	Did not land https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_missions#cite_note-sts-loss-landingsite-75

[TD]

• Planned tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS-B) deployment
• Teacher in space flight
• SRB leak destroyed the orbiter and killed crew

[/TD]

[TD][74][75][/TD]

[TR]
[TH]26[/TH]
[TD]29 September 1988
15:37:00 UTC
11:37:00 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Discovery[/TD]
[TD]5[/TD]
[TD]04d 01h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• Tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS-C) deployment
• First post-Challenger flight

[/TD]

[TD][76][77][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]27[/TH]
[TD]2 December 1988
14:30:34 UTC
09:30:34 EST[/TD]
[TD]Atlantis[/TD]
[TD]5[/TD]
[TD]04d 09h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• Third classified DoD mission
• Lacrosse 1 deployment
• Heavy damage to the thermal protection system resulted in extreme heat damage to the right wing

[/TD]

[TD][28][78][79][80][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]28[/TH]
[TD]13 March 1989
14:57:00 UTC
09:57:00 EST[/TD]
[TD]Discovery[/TD]
[TD]5[/TD]
[TD]04d 23h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• Tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS-D) deployment
• IMAX camera
• Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element I space station radiator experiment

[/TD]

[TD][81][82][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]29[/TH]
[TD]4 May 1989
18:46:59 UTC
14:46:59 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Atlantis[/TD]
[TD]5[/TD]
[TD]04d 00h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• Magellan Venus probe deployment

[/TD]

[TD][83][84][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]30[/TH]
[TD]8 August 1989
12:37:00 UTC
08:37:00 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Columbia[/TD]
[TD]5[/TD]
[TD]05d 01h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• Fourth classified DoD mission
• Satellite Data System deployment

[/TD]

[TD][28][85][86][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]31[/TH]
[TD]18 October 1989
16:53:40 UTC
12:53:40 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Atlantis[/TD]
[TD]5[/TD]
[TD]04d 23h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• Galileo Jupiter probe deployment
• IMAX camera

[/TD]

[TD][87][88][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]32[/TH]
[TD]22 November 1989
24:23:30 UTC
19:23:30 EST[/TD]
[TD]Discovery[/TD]
[TD]5[/TD]
[TD]05d 00h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• Fifth classified DoD mission
• Deployment of Magnum

[/TD]

[TD][28][89][90][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]33[/TH]
[TD]9 January 1990
12:35:00 UTC
07:35:00 EST[/TD]
[TD]Columbia[/TD]
[TD]5[/TD]
[TD]10d 21h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39A[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• Syncom IV-F5 satellite deployment
• Long Duration Exposure Facility retrieval
• IMAX camera

[/TD]

[TD][91][92][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]34[/TH]
[TD]28 February 1990
07:50:22 UTC
02:50:22 EST[/TD]
[TD]Atlantis[/TD]
[TD]5[/TD]
[TD]04d 10h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39A[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• Sixth classified DoD mission
• Misty reconnaissance satellite deployment

[/TD]

[TD][28][93][94][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]35[/TH]
[TD]24 April 1990
12:33:51 UTC
08:33:51 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Discovery[/TD]
[TD]5[/TD]
[TD]05d 01h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• Hubble Space Telescope deployment

[/TD]

[TD][95][96][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]36[/TH]
[TD]6 October 1990
11:47:15 UTC
07:47:15 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Discovery[/TD]
[TD]5[/TD]
[TD]04d 02h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• Ulysses/Inertial Upper Stage solar probe deployment

[/TD]

[TD][97][98][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]37[/TH]
[TD]15 November 1990
23:48:15 UTC
18:48:15 EST[/TD]
[TD]Atlantis[/TD]
[TD]5[/TD]
[TD]04d 21h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39A[/TD]
[TD]Kennedy[/TD]

[TD]

• Seventh classified DoD mission
• Likely SDS2-2 deployed

[/TD]

[TD][28][99][100][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]38[/TH]
[TD]2 December 1990
06:49:01 UTC
01:49:01 EST[/TD]
[TD]Columbia[/TD]
[TD]7[/TD]
[TD]08d 23h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• Use of ASTRO-1 observatory

[/TD]

[TD][101][102][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]39[/TH]
[TD]5 April 1991
14:22:45 UTC
09:22:45 EST[/TD]
[TD]Atlantis[/TD]
[TD]5[/TD]
[TD]05d 23h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• Compton Gamma Ray Observatory deployment and EVA repair

[/TD]

[TD][103][104][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]40[/TH]
[TD]28 April 1991
11:33:14 UTC
07:33:14 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Discovery[/TD]
[TD]7[/TD]
[TD]08d 07h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39A[/TD]
[TD]Kennedy[/TD]

[TD]

• First unclassified DoD mission
• Military science experiments

[/TD]

[TD][28][105][106][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]41[/TH]
[TD]5 June 1991
13:24:51 UTC
09:24:51 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Columbia[/TD]
[TD]7[/TD]
[TD]09d 02h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• Spacelab mission

[/TD]

[TD][107][108][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]42[/TH]
[TD]2 August 1991
15:02:00 UTC
11:02:00 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Atlantis[/TD]
[TD]5[/TD]
[TD]08d 21h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39A[/TD]
[TD]Kennedy[/TD]

[TD]

• Tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS-E) deployment

[/TD]

[TD][109][110][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]43[/TH]
[TD]12 September 1991
23:11:04 UTC
19:11:04 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Discovery[/TD]
[TD]5[/TD]
[TD]05d 08h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39A[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite deployment

[/TD]

[TD][111][112][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]44[/TH]
[TD]24 November 1991
23:44:00 UTC
18:44:00 EST[/TD]
[TD]Atlantis[/TD]
[TD]6[/TD]
[TD]06d 22h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39A[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• DSP satellite deployment

[/TD]

[TD][113][114][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]45[/TH]
[TD]22 January 1992
14:52:33 UTC
09:52:33 EST[/TD]
[TD]Discovery[/TD]
[TD]7[/TD]
[TD]08d 01h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39A[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• Spacelab mission

[/TD]

[TD][115][116][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]46[/TH]
[TD]24 March 1992
13:13:40 UTC
08:13:40 EST[/TD]
[TD]Atlantis[/TD]
[TD]7[/TD]
[TD]08d 22h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39A[/TD]
[TD]Kennedy[/TD]

[TD]

• ATLAS-1 science platform

[/TD]

[TD][117][118][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]47[/TH]
[TD]7 May 1992
23:40:00 UTC
19:40:00 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Endeavour[/TD]
[TD]7[/TD]
[TD]08d 21h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• Intelsat VI hand-retrieval and repair
• First flight of Endeavour
• First three-person Extravehicular activity
• Assembly of Station by EVA Methods (ASEM) space station truss experiment EVA
• Record four EVAs total for mission
• First landing with a drag chute

[/TD]

[TD][119][120][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]48[/TH]
[TD]25 June 1992
16:12:23 UTC
12:12:23 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Columbia[/TD]
[TD]7[/TD]
[TD]13d 19h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39A[/TD]
[TD]Kennedy[/TD]

[TD]

• Spacelab mission

[/TD]

[TD][121][122][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]49[/TH]
[TD]31 July 1992
13:56:48 UTC
09:56:48 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Atlantis[/TD]
[TD]7[/TD]
[TD]07d 23h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Kennedy[/TD]

[TD]

• Deployment of EURECA
• Deployment of National Aeronautics and Space Administration/Italian Space Agency Tethered Satellite System (TSS)

[/TD]

[TD][123][124][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]50[/TH]
[TD]12 September 1992
14:23:00 UTC
10:23:00 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Endeavour[/TD]
[TD]7[/TD]
[TD]07d 22h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Kennedy[/TD]

[TD]

• Spacelab-J
• First flight of an African-American woman in space, Mae Jemison
• Japan funded

[/TD]

[TH][/TH]
[/TR]

51	22 October 1992 17:09:39 UTC 13:09:39 EDT	Columbia	6	09d 20h	LC-39B	Kennedy	LAGEOS II deployment Microgravity experiments	[127][128]
52	2 December 1992 13:24:00 UTC 08:24:00 EST	Discovery	5	07d 07h	LC-39A	Edwards	Partially classified 10th and final DoD mission Likely deployment of SDS2 satellite	[28][129][130]
53	13 January 1993 13:59:30 UTC 08:59:30 EST	Endeavour	5	05d 23h	LC-39B	Kennedy	Tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS-F) deployment	[131][132]
54	8 April 1993 05:29:00 UTC 01:29:00 EDT	Discovery	5	09d 06h	LC-39B	Kennedy	ATLAS-2 science platform	[133][134]
55	26 April 1993 14:50:00 UTC 10:50:00 EDT	Columbia	7	09d 23h	LC-39A	Edwards	Spacelab-D2 Mission funded by Germany	[135][136]
56	21 June 1993 13:07:22 UTC 09:07:22 EDT	Endeavour	6	09d 23h	LC-39B	Kennedy	Scientific Experiments aboard the SPACEHAB module Retrieval of EURECA	[137][138]
57	12 September 1993 11:45:00 UTC 07:45:00 EDT	Discovery	5	09d 20h	LC-39B	Kennedy	ACTS satellite deployed Orbiting Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer with IMAX camera deployed	[139][140]
58	18 October 1993 14:53:10 UTC 10:53:10 EDT	Columbia	7	14d 00h	LC-39B	Edwards	Spacelab mission	[141][142]
59	2 December 1993 09:27:00 UTC 04:27:00 EST	Endeavour	7	10d 19h	LC-39B	Kennedy	Hubble Space Telescope servicing	[143][144]
60	3 February 1994 12:10:00 UTC 07:10:00 EST	Discovery	6	07d 06h	LC-39A	Kennedy	SPACEHAB Wake Shield Facility	[145][146]
61	4 March 1994 13:53:00 UTC 08:53:00 EST	Columbia	5	13d 23h	LC-39B	Kennedy	Microgravity experiments	[147][148]
62	9 April 1994 11:05:00 UTC 07:05:00 EDT	Endeavour	6	11d 05h	LC-39A	Edwards	Experiments aboard Shuttle Radar Laboratory-1	[149][150]
63	8 July 1994 04:43:00 UTC 00:43:00 EDT	Columbia	7	14d 17h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Spacelab mission	[151][152]
64	9 September 1994 22:22:05 UTC 18:22:05 EDT	Discovery	6	10d 22h	LC-39B	Edwards	Multiple science experiments SPARTAN	[153][154]
65	30 September 1994 11:16:00 UTC 07:16:00 EDT	Endeavour	6	11d 05h	LC-39A	Edwards	Experiments aboard Space Radar Laboratory-2	[155][156]
66	3 November 1994 16:59:43 UTC 11:59:43 EST	Atlantis	6	10d 22h	LC-39B	Edwards	ATLAS-3 science platform	[157][158]
67	3 February 1995 05:22:04 UTC 00:22:04 EST	Discovery	6	08d 06h	LC-39B	Kennedy	Mir rendezvous SPACEHAB IMAX camera	[159][160]
68	2 March 1995 06:38:13 UTC 01:38:13 EST	Endeavour	7	16d 15h	LC-39A	Edwards	ASTRO-2 Deployment	[161][162]
69	27 June 1995 19:32:19 UTC 15:32:19 EDT	Atlantis	7/8	09d 19h	LC-39A	Kennedy	First Shuttle-Mir docking	[163][164]
70	13 July 1995 13:41:55 UTC 09:41:55 EDT	Discovery	5	08d 22h	LC-39B	Kennedy	Tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS-G) deployment	[165][166]
71	7 September 1995 15:09:00 UTC 11:09:00 EDT	Endeavour	5	10d 20h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Wake Shield Facility SPARTAN	[167][168]
72	20 October 1995 13:53:00 UTC 09:53:00 EDT	Columbia	7	15d 21h	LC-39B	Kennedy	Spacelab mission	[169][170]
73	12 November 1995 12:30:43 UTC 07:30:43 EST	Atlantis	5	08d 04h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Second Shuttle-Mir docking Delivered docking module Delivered IMAX cargo bay camera	[171][172]
74	11 January 1996 09:41:00 UTC 04:41:00 EST	Endeavour	6	08d 22h	LC-39B	Kennedy	Retrieved Japan's Space Flyer Unit 2 Extravehicular activities	[173][174]
75	22 February 1996 20:18:00 UTC 15:18:00 EST	Columbia	7	15d 17h	LC-39B	Kennedy	Tethered satellite reflight, lost due to broken tether	[175][176]

76	22 March 1996 08:13:04 UTC 03:13:04 EST	Atlantis	6/5	09d 05h	LC-39B	Edwards	Shuttle-Mir docking	[177][178]
77	19 May 1996 10:30:00 UTC 06:30:00 EDT	Endeavour	6	10d 00h	LC-39B	Kennedy	SPACEHAB SPARTAN	[179][180]
78	20 June 1996 14:49:00 UTC 10:49:00 EDT	Columbia	7	16d 21h	LC-39B	Kennedy	Spacelab mission	[181][182]
79	16 September 1996 08:54:49 UTC 04:54:49 EDT	Atlantis	6/6	10d 03h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Shuttle-Mir docking	[183][184]
80	19 November 1996 19:55:47 UTC 14:55:47 EST	Columbia	5	17d 15h	LC-39B	Kennedy	Wake Shield Facility Orbiting and Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer-Shuttle Pallet Satellite (ORFEUS) II	[185][186]
81	12 January 1997 09:27:23 UTC 04:27:23 EST	Atlantis	6/6	10d 04h	LC-39B	Kennedy	Shuttle-Mir docking	[187][188]
82	11 February 1997 08:55:17 UTC 03:55:17 EST	Discovery	7	09d 23h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Hubble Space Telescope servicing	[189][190]
83	4 April 1997 19:20:32 UTC 14:20:32 EST	Columbia	7	03d 23h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Spacelab mission Truncated due to fuel cell problem	[191][192]
84	15 May 1997 08:07:48 UTC 04:07:48 EDT	Atlantis	7/7	09d 05h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Shuttle-Mir docking	[193][194]
85	1 July 1997 18:02:00 UTC 14:02:00 EDT	Columbia	7	15d 16h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Spacelab mission	[195][196]
86	7 August 1997 14:41:00 UTC 10:41:00 EDT	Discovery	6	11d 20h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Deployed and retrieved Cryogenic Infrared Spectrometers and Telescopes for the Atmosphere-Shuttle Pallet Satellite-2 (CRISTA-SPAS)	[197][198]
87	25 September 1997 14:34:19 UTC 10:34:19 EDT	Atlantis	7/7	10d 19h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Shuttle-Mir docking	[199][200]
88	19 November 1997 19:46:00 UTC 14:46:00 EST	Columbia	6	15d 16h	LC-39B	Kennedy	Microgravity experiments 2 Extravehicular activitys SPARTAN First spaceflight by a woman of Indian origin Kalpana Chawla	[201][202]
89	22 January 1998 02:48:15 UTC[c] 21:48:15 EST	Endeavour	7/7	08d 19h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Shuttle-Mir docking	[203][204]
90	17 April 1998 18:19:00 UTC 14:19:00 EDT	Columbia	7	15d 21h	LC-39B	Kennedy	Spacelab mission	[205][206]
91	2 June 1998 22:06:24 UTC 18:06:24 EDT	Discovery	6/7	09d 19h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Last Shuttle-Mir docking	[207][208]
92	29 October 1998 19:19:34 UTC 14:19:34 EST	Discovery	7	08d 21h	LC-39B	Kennedy	SPACEHAB John Glenn flies again	[209][210]
93	4 December 1998 08:35:34 UTC 03:35:34 EST	Endeavour	6	11d 19h	LC-39A	Kennedy	ISS assembly flight 2A: Node 1 First Shuttle ISS assembly flight	[211][212]
94	27 May 1999 10:49:42 UTC 06:49:42 EDT	Discovery	7	09d 19h	LC-39B	Kennedy	ISS supply	[213][214]
95	23 July 1999 04:31:00 UTC 00:31:00 EDT	Columbia	5	04d 22h	LC-39B	Kennedy	Chandra X-ray Observatory deployed	[215][216]
96	19 December 1999 00:50:00 UTC[c] 19:50:00 EST	Discovery	7	07d 23h	LC-39B	Kennedy	Hubble Space Telescope servicing	[217][218]
97	11 February 2000 16:43:40 UTC 12:43:40 EDT	Endeavour	6	11d 05h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Shuttle Radar Topography Mission	[219][220]
98	19 May 2000 10:11:10 UTC 06:11:10 EDT	Atlantis	7	09d 21h	LC-39A	Kennedy	ISS supply	[221][222]
99	8 September 2000 12:45:47 UTC 08:45:47 EDT	Atlantis	7	11d 19h	LC-39B	Kennedy	ISS supply	[223][224]
100	11 October 2000 23:17:00 UTC 18:17:00 EST	Discovery	7	12d 21h	LC-39A	Edwards	ISS assembly flight 3A: Z1 truss	[225][226]

101	30 November 2000 03:06:01 UTC[c] 22:06:01 EST	Endeavour	5	10d 19h	LC-39B	Kennedy	ISS assembly flight 4A: P6 solar arrays, radiators	[227][228]
102	7 February 2001 23:13:02 UTC 18:13:02 EST	Atlantis	5	12d 21h	LC-39A	Edwards	ISS assembly flight 5A: Destiny lab	[229][230]
103	8 March 2001 11:42:09 UTC 06:42:09 EST	Discovery	7/7	12d 19h	LC-39B	Kennedy	ISS supply and crew rotation	[231][232]
104	19 April 2001 18:40:42 UTC 14:40:42 EDT	Endeavour	7	11d 21h	LC-39A	Edwards	ISS assembly flight 6A: robotic arm First spacewalk by a Canadian, Chris Hadfield	[233][234]
105	12 July 2001 09:03:59 UTC 05:03:59 EDT	Atlantis	5	12d 18h	LC-39B	Kennedy	ISS assembly flight 7A: Quest Joint Airlock	[235][236]
106	10 August 2001 21:10:14 UTC 17:10:14 EDT	Discovery	7/7	11d 21h	LC-39A	Kennedy	ISS supply and crew rotation	[237][238]
107	5 December 2001 22:19:28 UTC 17:19:28 EST	Endeavour	7/7	11d 19h	LC-39B	Kennedy	ISS supply and crew rotation	[239][240]
108	1 March 2002 11:22:02 UTC 06:22:02 EST	Columbia	7	10d 22h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Hubble Space Telescope servicing Last successful mission for Columbia	[241][242]
109	8 April 2002 20:44:19 UTC 16:44:19 EDT	Atlantis	7	10d 19h	LC-39B	Kennedy	ISS assembly flight 8A: S0 truss	[243][244]
110	5 June 2002 21:22:49 UTC 17:22:49 EDT	Endeavour	7/7	13d 20h	LC-39A	Edwards	ISS supply and crew rotation Mobile Base System	[245][246]
111	7 October 2002 19:45:51 UTC 15:45:51 EDT	Atlantis	6	10d 19h	LC-39B	Kennedy	ISS assembly flight 9A: S1 truss	[247][248]
112	23 November 2002 00:49:47 UTC[c] 19:49:47 EST	Endeavour	7/7	13d 18h	LC-39A	Kennedy	ISS assembly flight 11A: P1 truss, crew rotation Last successful mission before STS-107	[249][250]
113	16 January 2003 15:39:00 UTC 10:39:00 EST	Columbia	7	15d 22h	LC-39A	Did not landhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_missions#cite_note-sts-loss-landingsite-75

[TD]

• SPACEHAB
• First Israeli in space, Ilan Ramon
• Re-entry breakup disintegrated the orbiter and killed crew

[/TD]

[TD][251][252][/TD]

[TR]
[TH]114[/TH]
[TD]26 July 2005
14:39:00 UTC
10:39:00 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Discovery[/TD]
[TD]7[/TD]
[TD]13d 21h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• First post Columbia flight
• Flight safety Evaluation/testing
• ISS supply/repair
• MPLM Raffaello

[/TD]

[TD][253][254][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]115[/TH]
[TD]4 July 2006
18:37:55 UTC
14:37:55 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Discovery[/TD]
[TD]7/6[/TD]
[TD]12d 18h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Kennedy[/TD]

[TD]

• ISS Flight ULF1.1: supply and crew rotation
• MPLM Leonardo

[/TD]

[TD][255][256][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]116[/TH]
[TD]9 September 2006
15:14:55 UTC
11:14:55 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Atlantis[/TD]
[TD]6[/TD]
[TD]11d 19h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Kennedy[/TD]

[TD]

• ISS assembly flight 12A: P3/P4 Truss, Solar Arrays

[/TD]

[TD][257][258][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]117[/TH]
[TD]9 December 2006
24:47:35 UTC
20:47:35 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Discovery[/TD]
[TD]7/7[/TD]
[TD]12d 21h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39B[/TD]
[TD]Kennedy[/TD]

[TD]

• ISS assembly flight 12A.1: P5 Truss & SPACEHAB-SM
• Crew rotation
• Final Space Shuttle launch from LC-39B

[/TD]

[TD][259][260][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]118[/TH]
[TD]8 June 2007
23:38:04 UTC
19:38:04 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Atlantis[/TD]
[TD]7/7[/TD]
[TD]13d 20h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39A[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• ISS assembly flight 13A: S3/S4 Truss, Solar Arrays
• Crew rotation

[/TD]

[TD][261][262][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]119[/TH]
[TD]8 August 2007
22:36:42 UTC
18:36:42 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Endeavour[/TD]
[TD]7[/TD]
[TD]12d 18h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39A[/TD]
[TD]Kennedy[/TD]

[TD]

• ISS assembly flight 13A.1: S5 Truss & SPACEHAB-SM & ESP-3
• First use of Station-to-Shuttle Power Transfer System (SSPTS)

[/TD]

[TD][263][264][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]120[/TH]
[TD]23 October 2007
15:38:19 UTC
11:38:19 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Discovery[/TD]
[TD]7/7[/TD]
[TD]15d 02h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39A[/TD]
[TD]Kennedy[/TD]

[TD]

• ISS assembly flight 10A: US Harmony module
• Crew rotation

[/TD]

[TD][265][266][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]121[/TH]
[TD]7 February 2008
19:45:30 UTC
14:45:30 EST[/TD]
[TD]Atlantis[/TD]
[TD]7/7[/TD]
[TD]12d 18h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39A[/TD]
[TD]Kennedy[/TD]

[TD]

• ISS assembly flight 1E: European Laboratory Columbus
• Crew rotation

[/TD]

[TD][267][268][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]122[/TH]
[TD]11 March 2008
06:28:14 UTC
02:28:14 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Endeavour[/TD]
[TD]7/7[/TD]
[TD]15d 18h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39A[/TD]
[TD]Kennedy[/TD]

[TD]

• ISS assembly flight 1J/A: Experiment Logistics Module-Pressurized Section (ELM PS) & SPDM
• Crew rotation

[/TD]

[TD][269][270][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]123[/TH]
[TD]31 May 2008
21:02:12 UTC
17:02:12 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Discovery[/TD]
[TD]7/7[/TD]
[TD]13d 18h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39A[/TD]
[TD]Kennedy[/TD]

[TD]

• ISS assembly flight 1J: Japanese modules Kibo and RMS

[/TD]

[TD][271][272][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]124[/TH]
[TD]14 November 2008
24:55:39 UTC
19:55:39 EST[/TD]
[TD]Endeavour[/TD]
[TD]7/7[/TD]
[TD]15d 20h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39A[/TD]
[TD]Edwards[/TD]

[TD]

• ISS assembly flight ULF2: MPLM Leonardo
• Crew rotation

[/TD]

[TD][273][274][/TD]
[/TR]
[TR]
[TH]125[/TH]
[TD]15 March 2009
23:43:44 UTC
19:43:44 EDT[/TD]
[TD]Discovery[/TD]
[TD]7/7[/TD]
[TD]12d 19h[/TD]
[TD]LC-39A[/TD]
[TD]Kennedy[/TD]

[TD]

• ISS assembly flight 15A: S6 Truss, Solar Arrays

[/TD]

[TD][275][276][/TD]
[/TR]

126	11 May 2009 18:01:56 UTC 14:01:56 EDT	Atlantis	7	12d 21h	LC-39A	Edwards	Last Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission Final Non-ISS flight	[277][278][279]
127	15 July 2009 22:03:10 UTC 18:03:10 EDT	Endeavour	7/7	15d 16h	LC-39A	Kennedy	ISS assembly flight 2J/A: Japanese Experiment Modoules Exposed Facility (EF) and ELM ES	[280][281]
128	28 August 2009 03:59:37 UTC[c] 23:59:37 EDT	Discovery	7/7	13d 21h	LC-39A	Edwards	ISS assembly flight 17A: MPLM Leonardo Crew rotation Final landing at Edwards AFB	[282][283]
129	16 November 2009 19:28:01 UTC 14:28:01 EST	Atlantis	6/7	10d 19h	LC-39A	Kennedy	ISS assembly flight ULF3: ExPRESS Logistics Carriers (ELCs) 1 & 2	[284][285]
130	8 February 2010 09:14:07 UTC 04:14:07 EST	Endeavour	6	13d 18h	LC-39A	Kennedy	ISS assembly flight 20A: Node 3 and Cupola	[286][287]
131	5 April 2010 10:21:25 UTC 06:21:25 EDT	Discovery	7	15d 03h	LC-39A	Kennedy	ISS assembly flight 19A: Utility and Logistics Flight 4: Multi-Purpose Logistics Module Leonardo Last night launch of the Shuttle Program	[288][289]
132	14 May 2010 18:20:09 UTC 14:20:09 EDT	Atlantis	6	11d 18h	LC-39A	Kennedy	ISS assembly flight ULF4: Mini-Research Module 1	[290][291]
133	24 February 2011 21:53:24 UTC 16:53:24 EST	Discovery	6	12d 19h	LC-39A	Kennedy	ISS assembly flight ULF5, Pressurized Multipurpose Module Leonardo, ExPRESS Logistics Carrier 4 Final flight of Discovery	[292][293]
134	16 May 2011 12:56:28 UTC 08:56:28 EDT	Endeavour	6	15d 18h	LC-39A	Kennedy	ISS assembly flight ULF6, ELC 3, Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer Final flight of Endeavour	[294][295]
135	8 July 2011 15:29:04 UTC 11:29:04 EDT	Atlantis	4	12d 18h	LC-39A	Kennedy	Payload Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) Raffaello Final flight of Atlantis Final flight of the Space Shuttle program	[296][297][298]

 

[Hamartia Antidote]

So this brings up as to how it can be powered.
If it was batteries and solar power then well that might not be practical as you'd need a HUGE solar array to charge a vehicle that size every day. They may have to go nuclear like the rovers...not sure how dangerous it is.

Kilopower - Wikipedia

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