INDIAN NAVY IN 1572, CALICUT
reception of vasco da gama by the nayar rulers
An old sea going indian ship
THE GREAT CHOLA NAVY
The king/emperor was the
supreme commander of all the military forces including the navy.
The navy is organized mostly on role based squadrons & divisions, containing various types of ships assigned for a specific role and home-ported in an associated base/port. This procedure became necessary, especially after the conquest of Ceylon. Normally, a
Ganam (Fleet-Squadron) would (the largest individual unit)be commanded by a
Ganathipathy (not to be confused with the elephant headed god
Ganapathy).
There were numerous sub-units of operational reasons and organizational reasons or otherwise. Some are presented below,
Unit Name Commander Modern-day equivalent Composition Functions/Duties Notes
Kanni - Wartime/special purpose formation Senior
Kalapathy, Normally
Kalapathyis the rank of a commanding officer of a Ship (akin to Captain) Not more than five ships of any role. '
Kanni In Tamil means
trap.‡1 A tactical formation, it was used to lure enemy combatants to a particular area. Where larger bodies (usually, a Thalam or 2) ships will ambush the enemy. During a strategic deployment, the formation would be used many times before engaging in the main combat to decimate the enemy fleet. Also had a very bad reputation for losses, since high numbers of ships were lost in this role if the friendlies arrival was delayed in unfavorable currents.
[31]
Jalathalam or simply
Thalam‡2 - A permanent formation.
Jalathalathipathy - The lord of
Thalam The smallest self-sustained unit in naval formation, consisted 5 main battle vessels, 3 Auxiliaries and 2 Logistics and 1 or 2 Privateers. A
Thalam could be used for reconnaissance, patrol or interdiction. Normally, 2-3
Thalam operated in a vicinity on scouting or search & destroy missions. while can search a wide area, can reach to each other's aid in short duration. A fully equipped Chola
Thalamis said to have been able to withstand an attack by more than twice its size. This is attributed to the superior range of missile weapons in Chola Inventory.
Mandalam - A semi-permanent formation. Mostly used in battle/Overseas deployment.
Mandalathipathy - The lord of
Mandalam Roughly equivalent to
Task force or
Battle groups Composed of 40-50 Ships of various roles. (
Mandalam in Tamil and various Indian languages is the word of 48) They can used as an individual combat unit, especially during
pincer or
break-neck maneuvering in high-seas.
Ganam - A permanent formation
Ganathipathy - Literally, Athipathy (lord) of the
Ganam, equivalent to modern-day rear-admiral
Fleet-Squadron Composed of 100-150 Ships of various roles. (
Ganam in Tamil means
volume and
three). A
ganam comprises three
Mandalams. A self-reliant unit of the force, only lesser than the Fleet. Had combat, reconnaissance, logistics and resupply/repair units. Normally, this would be the minimum strength/size of the overseas deployment.
Ani Anipathy - lord of an
Ani Taskforceor
battle group Composed of 3
Ganams (Fleet-division) minimum. Normally consisting of 300-500 ships. Mainly an Expedition order than normal formation. But, during long deployments, they were deployed (only 2 instances of an
Ani being deployed in a combat have been documented.)
[32]
Pirivu Normally headed by a prince/confidante of the King, title depends on the sea where the fleet is based. For example, The eastern fleet would be named as
Keelpirivu-
athipathy or
Nayagan orThevan/r, depending on the person.
Fleet they functioned much like modern Fleets. There were two to four fleets in the Chola navy during various times. The principle fleet was based in the east. Later on a second fleet was based on Ceylon/Sri Lanka. During and after the Rajendra I, three or four fleets existed. The rise of
Chera naval power gave more than a little loss in revenue, prompting the Cholas to station a Fleet permanently in the Malabar and to engage Mercenary navies to support the Chola strategic design.
Notes[edit]
‡1.
Kanni May mean any of the following in Tamil, the application on the meaning is in context of the usage. Virgin/Unmarried Girl, First timer, the Eastern corner/direction. A trap is also called as 'kanni'
2.
Thalam being both the name of a tactical formation of the army and navy.
Thalapathy meaning the lord of a
Thalam, roughly a division, and the rank is comparable to a modern-day colonel.
Rank structure
The Chola navy used a hybrid rank structure. There were dedicated naval ranks as well as army-derived ranks.
[33] The Chola Navy used both naval ranks and army-style ranks. While some of the modern-day convention of ranks did apply, for example, the army captain is equal to a lieutenant in the navy and a navy captain is equal to a colonel in the army; others were totally different. So a small comparison is provided for comparison.
- The supreme commander :Chakravarthy - The emperor
- The commander-in chief of navy :Jalathipathhi - roughly, the admiral of the navy.
- The commander of the fleet : Pirivu+ Athipathy or Devar/n or Nayagan - The equivalent of an admiral
- The commander of the fleet-squadron : Ganathipathy - roughly the equivalent of a rear-admiral
- The commander of a group : Mandalathipathy#(refer below) - the equivalent of a vice-admiral
- The commander of the ship : Kalapathy -The equivalent of a captain in modern navies.
- The officer in-charge of arms in a ship : Kaapu - Roughly the executive officer and weapons officer rolled into one.
- The officer in-charge of the oarsmen/masts : Seevai - roughly the equivalent of the master chief and engineering officer.
- The officer in-charge of boarding party (marines) : Eeitimaar - major or captain in marines.
Other naval arms[edit]
The auxiliary forces of the Chola Navy In addition to the standing navy of the state, there were other services which had a naval arm of its own. Notable among them are the
customs department,
militia and the state monopoly of
pearl fisheries. In addition to the state services, a small but formidable forces were maintained by various
trade-guilds, these guilds are highly regulated and acted as mercenaries and reinforcements in times of need.
[34]
Customs and excise[edit]
The
Customs force, called
Sungu (SUNGA ILLAKA) was highly organized and unlike anything in the ancient world. It was under the command of a Director-general like position called
Thalai-Thirvai.
Thalai - Head,
Thirvai - duty (customs). It was highly evolved and had various departments
[35] Some are
Department Duties Assets
Thirvai(Customs duty & Exercise) This unit employed some of the brilliant merchants of the time and most were professional economists. They deduced and fixed the percentage of the Customs duty of a commodity for a particular season. (trade-voyages were influenced by ocean currents and hence the price changed accordingly) They normally had boarding officers, boarding crafts and some sea vessels; as most of their duty was inland.
Aaivu(
Inspection &
enforcement) This unit was the
Action arm of the trade law, they inspected ships for contraband, illegal goods, wrong declaring of tonnage, small crimes control and the protection of the Harbors under Chola dominion. These units employed some of the fast assault and boarding vessels of the time and in more than one reported occasion, the navy had sought its help in intercepting rogue vessels.†
Ottru(
intelligence corps) They were the intelligence corps of the territorial waters of the Chola dominion. They normally tailed foreign vessels, performed path-finding for larger forces or conveys and gave periodic updates for the kings and the trade-guilds of the happenings in the sea. They operated highly capable vessels which are noted for stealth and speed, rather than brute force and weapons platforms. Most of the ships they operated were
privateers and contained no national markings. We have some understandings of their crafts, which seemed to have been equipped with concealable catapults and
napalm throwers (not
trebuchets like the ones employed by the naval ships.)
Kallarani(
piratesquad) Technically, they weren't employed by either the sovereign or the state. But rather, they are
pirates themselves who have received the Royal Pardon on the pledge of their support of the
Chola Empire. They had been used in more than a few instances to deal with the Arab piracy in the western water. They have also been used as Coast Guard. These mercenaries operated anything that they could capture and composed of multi-national-ethnic corps. Notable among them are the Arabian
Amirs, who were highly respected upon their oath of allegiance and their fervor in combat.
Karaipirivu(
Coastal defense) They performed duties akin to the modern coast-guard, search & rescue and costal patrols. But mainly they were land-based and scattered along the long coast-line to provide a seaward defense. they operated substantially smaller crafts and occasionally even
catamarans . Nevertheless, they were feared by petty crooks and coastal thieves.
Coast guard[edit]
In the later years of the 1100[
clarification needed], the navy was constantly battling in many fronts to protect Chola commercial, religious and political interests. So the home ports were literally, undefended. This led to a change in the of outlook Chola naval strategy, the sturdier and larger vessels were repeatedly called to reinforce the high-sea flotilla, leading to the development of a specialized auxiliary force of fast and heavily armed light ships in large numbers. The erstwhile
Karaipirivu was the natural choice for this expansion and in time they became an autonomous force vested with the duties of protecting the Chola territorial waters, home ports, patrol of newly captured ports and coastal cities.
Privateers[edit]
The state's dependence on overseas trade for much valued foreign exchange created the powerful Trade-guilds, some of which grew more powerful than the regional governors.
[36] And in the increasingly competitive field of international trade, the state faced with difficulties to reinforce and or rescue stranded Merchant ships in high seas, in a timely manner. This led to the establishment of
privateer navies. Like its European counterparts, they had no National markings and employed multi-national crews.
But, they were employed by the Trade-guilds rather than the Empire, giving the Traders an edge in the seas. Normally, they performed path-finding, escort and protection duties. but, in more than a few occasions, these forces had been summoned to serve the Empire's interests.
Notable Trade guilds which employed a privateer navy were,
- Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar - literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the thousand directions"
- Maalainattu Thiribuvana Vaanibar kzhulumam - The merchants from the high-country in three worlds (meaning the 3 domiciles of Chinese, Indian and Arabian empires)
- Maadathu valaingair (or valainzhr)vaanibar Kzhu - The pearl exporters form the Kanchipuram
Vessels and weapons[edit]
A
Song Dynasty junk ship, 13th century; Chinese ships of the Song period featured
hulls with
watertight compartments. Some of these vessels are believed to have been employed by the Chola Navy too.
[37]
Even before the accounts of the 1st century BCE, there were written accounts of shipbuilding and war-craft at sea. Professor R.C. Majumdar says that there existed a comprehensive book of naval-architecture in India dating back to the 2nd century BCE, if not earlier.
During the reign of Raja Raja and his son, there were a complex classification of class of vessels and its utility. Some of the survived classes' name and utility are below.
[38]
- Dharani - The equivalent of modern-day destroyers designed to take combat to high-seas.
- Loola - The equivalent of modern-day corvettes; designed to perform light combat and escort duties.
- Vajra - The equivalent of a frigate maybe, a fast attack craft lightly armored.
- Thirisadai - Probably the battle cruisers or battleships of the day, they are reported to be armored heavily and could engage more than 2 targets in combat, and relied on its built rather than speed to survive and attack.[39]
Though all ships of the time employed a small Marine force (for boarding enemy vessels), this class of ship seems to have had a separate cabins and training area for them.
[40] This ship also is said to be able to engage in asymmetrical warfare.
Dharani The primary weapons platform with extensive endurance (up to 3 months), they normally engaged in groups and avoided one on one encounters.
Probably equivalent to modern-day
Destroyers.
Lola They were lightly armored, fast attack vessels. Normally performed escort duties. They could not perform frontal assaults. Equivalent to modern-day
Corvettes.
Vajara They were highly capable fast attack crafts, typically used to reinforce/rescue a stranded fleet.
Probably equivalent to modern-day
Frigates.
Thirisadai The heaviest class known, they had extensive war-fighting capabilities and endurance, with a dedicated marine force of around 400
Marines to board enemy vessels. They are reported to be able to engage three vessels of
Dharani class, hence the name
Thirisadai, which means,
three braids. (Braid was also the time's name for oil-fire.) This class can be attributed/compared to modern
Battle cruisersor
Battleships.
This is the Anchor of an Unknown LOLA class Chola ship, excavated by the
Indian Navy divers off the coast of Poombuhar.
Apart from class definitions, there are names of
Royal Yachts and their architecture. Some of which are,
- Akramandham - A royal Yacht with the Royal quarters in the stern.
- Neelamandham - A royal Yacht with extensive facilities for conducting courts and accommodation for hi-officials/ministers.
- Sarpammugam - these were smaller yachts used in the Rivers (with ornamental snake heads)
In addition to these, we find many names of Ship classes in
Purananuru and its application in both inland waters and open oceans. Some of them are,
- Yanthiram - Hybrid ship employing bot sails and oars or probably Paddle wheels of some type (as Yanthiram is literally translated to mechanical wheel)
- Kalam - Large vessels with 3 masts which can travel in any direction irrespective of winds.
- Punai - medium-sized vessels that can be used to coastal shipping as well as inland.
- Patri - Large barge type vessel used to ferrying trade goods.
- Oodam - Small boat with large oars.
- Ambi - Medium-sized boat with a single mast and oars.
- Toni - small boat used in rocky terrain.
Campaigns[edit]
In the tenure spanning the 700 years of its
documented existence, the Chola Navy was involved in confrontations for probably 500 years.
[41] There were frequent skirmishes and many pitched battles. Not to mention long campaigns and expeditions. The 5th centuries of conflict between the
Pandyas and
Cholas for the control of the peninsula gave rise to many
legends and
folktales. Not to mention the
heroes in both sides. The notable campaigns are below
[42][43][44]
- War of Pandya Succession (1172)
- War of Pandya succession (1167)
- The destruction of the Bali fleet (1148)
- Sea battle of the Kalinga Campaighn (1081-1083)
- The second expedition of Sri Vijaya (1031-1034)
- The first expedition of Sri Vijaya (1027-1029)
- The Annexation of Kedah (1024-1025)
- Annexation of the Kamboja (?-996)
- The invasion of Ceylon/Sri Lanka.(977-?)
- Skirmishes with Pallava Navy (903-8)
Recruitment and service[edit]
The chola emperors gave a free hand to the admirals in recruiting and training of sailors, engineers, oarsmen and marines. There were no complicated tests and evaluation process. Any citizen or even non citizen could sign up for the naval service. But, one did not end up in the work of his choice. Preference were given to ex-servicemen, their sons and noblemen. But, this attitude changed in later days. And many class of soldiers / sailors distinguished themselves, irrespective of rank and class.
Ports and fleets[edit]
The most ancient of ports used by Cholas was
Poompuhar. Later on, they used many more ports and even built some new ones. Some of the famous ports are:
In addition to these sea ports there were many inland ports and dry dock connected by Rivers
Kaveri and
Thamarabarani which served commercial fleets and in times of war, to facilitate mass production, ships were built inland and ferried through the rivers to the Ocean.
The fleets were normally named after the dead monarchs and god's name. The most distinguished ones were granted Royal prefixes like Theiva-sovereign's name-fleet name. During the reign of
Rajaraja Chola I and
Rajendra Chola I, there were 5 fleets, each catering to particular needs. The main fleet was home ported in Nagapatinam. The other fleets were home ported in Kadalur and a small fleet was also based in Kanchipuram.
In addition to the main fleets of war ships, there were two fleets of
logistics and transport ships to serve the needs of the army; involved in a bloody war in Ceylon and later in southeast Asia.
In the later years these numbers increased drastically and a several fleets were created anew. During the late 11th century, there were a total of nine battle fleets, based in various dominians across the vast expanses of the
Chola empire ranging from the present day Aceh, Ankorwat to the southern reaches of Ceylon/Sri Lanka.
Political, cultural and economic impact[edit]
The Grand vision and imperial energy of the Father and son duo
Raja Raja Chola I and
Rajendra Chola I is undoubtedly the underlying reason for expansion and prosperity. But, this was accomplished by the tireless efforts and pains of the navy. In essence, Raja Raja was the first person in the sub-continent to realize the power projection capabilities of a powerful navy. He and his successors initiated a massive naval buildup and continued supporting it,and they used it more than just wars.
The Chola navy was a potent Diplomatic symbol,It was the carrier of Chola might and prestige. It spread the Dravidian culture, the literary and architectural grandeur. For the sake of comparison, it was just the equivalent of the "
Gunboat diplomacy " of the modern-day
Great powers and
super powers.
There is evidence to show that the king of Kambujadesa (modern Cambodia) sent an ornamental chariot to the Chola Emperor, probably to appease him so that his strategic attention does not extend further than the Malay peninsula.
Popular culture
From the Sangam age poems to commemorate the victory of the sovereign of the day to the immortalized Kalinga Campaign of the
Kulothunga Chola I in the
Kalingattuparani.
Parani is a special type of literary work, which; according to the traditions and rules of linguistics of
Tamizh can only be composed on a king/general whose forces have killed a thousand elephants in combat.
In modern times, more than a few Romance has been inspired by the Chola Navy, and mostly in Tamil Language and literature.
- Yavana rani : A historical novel by Sandilyian surrounding the events of the Karikala's Ascendence to throne.
- Ponniyin selvan : The crowning glory of the Rajaraja is idolized in this Novel surrounding the assassination of his brother and crown prince Aditha Karikalan. More than a passing note is given of the navy and its organization in this Magnum opus by Kalki. Krishnamoorthy.
- Kadal pura : Another historical novel by sandilyan surrounding the foundation of the Chalukya Chola dynasty in India and the Song Dynasty in china. Sandilyan gives more than a passing evidence to prove that the song-emperor and Kulothunga chola were friends. By far, this work gives the most intricate details of the navies of the day and naval warfare. In this work he describes the various weapons and tactics employed by the Cholas and Chinese navies and their combined efforts to overthrow the Sri Vijaya dynasty.
- Kanni Maadam : A historical novel by Sandilyan in the time of Rajathiraja Chola. The work describes the Pandyas' civil war .It elaborates the war by proxy, between the sinhalese and cholas. The pallavas are all but gone, they are in the service of both Cholas and pandyas. It features some of the most detailed tactical maneuvering in battlefield. It also highlights the importance of the Naval power and logistics in an overseas campaign.
Timeline of events
The major events which had direct impact in the development of the Chola Naval capability are listed here, which is in no case comprehensive. But, some of the events had deep impact nevertheless.
Archeological evidence: The dated excavations,
- 3000 BCE - Dugboats were found in Arikamedu, what is now in Puducherry.[citation needed]
- 2400 BCE - Highly functional port is in operation in Lothal of what is now Gujarat.[citation needed]
- 700 BCE - The first mention of the word Yavana in pottery around korkai.(meaning Greeks or Romans)
- 300 BCE - A load-stone compass with Chinese inscriptions is found off the coast of Kaaveripoompatnam.[citation needed]
- 100 BCE - A settlement of Tamil/Pakrit speaking merchants founded in Rome.[citation needed]
- Late 1st century BCE - Roman glass was found in southern coastal regions of Tamil Nadu.[citation needed]
Literary references and recordings
- 356-321 BCE: The Periplus of Niarchus, an officer of Alexander the Great, describes the Persian coast. Niarchus commissioned thirty oared galleys to transport the troops of Alexander the Great from northwest India back to Mesopotamia, via the Persian Gulf and the Tigris, an established commercial route.[45]
- 334-323 BCE: Eratosthenes, the librarian at Alexandria, drew a map which includes Sri Lanka and the mouth of the Ganges. Which states the exchange of traffic and commodity in the regions.[46]
- 1st century BCE : When Vennikkuyithiar mentions about Karikala, he mentions several class of inland vessels by Name some are Kalam, Punai & Patri.