INDIAN CUISINE
Preface:I ain't much of a traveler myself but the first thing i look for while visiting any new place is its cuisine. I vividly remember my Mother-in-law telling an old age adage to my wife, immediately after our marriage, that
route to a man's heart through his stomach, perhaps that can also be extended to that one of the great ways to understand any culture is to know its cuisine.
India is a land of spices and spices are to life (atleast in India) what colors are to our eyes.
History
History of Indian FoodHistory of Indian Food has experienced extensive immigration and intermingling through many descents. Indian food is greatly influenced by a 4000 year old history of several cultures interrelating with the country, leading to a vast assortment of flavours. This reflects not only huge variety of people who inhabit in India, but also the external influence of various cultures that migrated to the country and continued to exist in the form of cuisine and delicacies of various communities. Along with this, history of Indian food also depicts the evolution of Indian food in different stages, which can be largely divided into food in ancient India, medieval India and contemporary India. Overall the popularity of various food items in India specifically describes India’s notion of unity in diversity.
Historical Background
Ancient History of Indian Food
History of Indian food can be traced back to the prehistoric days when the culture of preparing food with proper preparation was introduced by the two earliest civilization of Indus valley Civilization. The Harappa and Mohenjodaro Civilisation for the first time introduced the science of cultivation that included a number of cereals and pulses. These were stored in large granaries which reflected the organised structure of administration in securing and distributing food items for every one throughout the year. Slowly and steadily Ancient Civilisation in India moved closer towards perfection. This was mainly marked during the Vedic period which defined better forms of cuisines with new developed recipes. While the Indian society is predominantly agrarian, it cultivated large varieties of pulses, grains and vegetables that were complemented by hunting and forest produces. In Vedic times, a normal diet of an Indian consisted of fruit, vegetables, meat, grain, dairy products and honey. It also included beverages along with special kind of spices that was used by the Vedic people.
History of food in Ancient India was greatly influenced with the Harappan and Mohenjodaro Civilization. The Aryans who travelled from Central Asia introduced a number of food items which complemented the then existing Vedic culture. Along with this food in ancient India also include food in Maurya Empire which was extensively discussed by Kautilya in Arthashastra. Kautilya lays down certain specifications regarding the structure of kitchen, the food items to be cooked and the purity to be maintained while cooking. Food in Ancient India further faced huge changes during the Gupta Empire which was greatly influenced by Buddhism and Jainism. During this period consumption of meat was condemned as they considered some animals as sacred and considered food to be a part of religion. Though intake of sheep, goat and chicken was still prevalent, but under the influence of religion most of the people were vegetarian. Overall the food in ancient India greatly contributed to the development of mind, body and spirit which reflected the growing changes within Indian food habits.
Medieval History of Indian Food
Food habits in Medieval India underwent changes with the advent of invaders from Central Asia. The Muslims introduced the most popular Mughal cuisine which forms a major part of Indian menu even today. Along with this, they brought different kinds of dry fruits and flat breads among the Indians. The Mughals were great patrons of cuisine. Lavish dishes were prepared during the rule of Jahangir and Shah Jahan. The Nizams of Hyderabad state, meanwhile, developed and mastered their own style of cooking with the most notable dish being the Biryani, often considered by many enthusiasts to be the finest of main dishes in India. Next to this, the Portuguese introduced Indian Vindaloo dish and others. This was followed by the Chinese influence on Indian food that travelled along with the mongoloid race from Central Asia. Along with this food in medieval India was also influenced by the British and Anglo-Indian cuisine. This continued in modern days as well. The British introduced Western style of food in India which was gracefully accepted by the Indians along with their traditional past. The history of Indian food manifests before us that during the reign of the British Empire in India (the British Raj), the home cuisine was considered by the Europeans closely to what Gods taught of ambrosia: a delightful, heavenly and delicate dish.
Contemporary History of Indian Food
History of Indian Food in Modern India mainly carried the traditional trends of Indian cuisines including the traditional Hindu vegetarian food as well as Mughal delicacies of Medieval India along with Chinese and other foreign delicacies. As such in the way of highlighting unity in diversity India in modern days enjoy all kinds of delicacies. The trend of globalization has also revolutionized the food junction as well. Italian cuisines like pasta, pizzas, macaroni, Indianized version of Chinese, Mexican, and Thai etc is no more a far flung conceit, but within the physical and financial reach of middle class even.
Thus, the history of food Indian food has been an assimilation of all cultures that inhabit in India.
JOURNEY THROUGH VARIOUS STAGES OF CIVILIZATION
Food in Indus Valley civilization
Food in Vedic period has been treated as most important for subsistence which is also known as Sarvausadha or panacea. Food in Vedic period largely include various types of cereals and pulses, dairy products, meat, sweets, salts and spices oil and oil seeds and beverages which are specified in the Vedas and sutras.
Food in Indus Valley civilization largely depended on some major food crops and cereals that were cultivated by the Indus valley people. The Indus Valley civilization was the earliest civilisation that took a formal structure of a modern day village with well designed and well planned city structure. This was one of the earliest civilizations that came up after the nomadic inhabitants of pre historic India. As such this civilization carried a number of common trends which were similar with its predecessors who inhabited the area. Such common trends include the types of crops that were cultivated by the people of Indus Valley Civilization, the utensils used by them and the type of cooked food items taken by them. All this reflected the trends of the ancient Negroid race and Proto- Australoids who resided in ancient India.
Food in Indus Valley civilization has been predominantly agrarian in which excavations reveal that the Indus valley people were habituated in consuming Barley which was one of the major cereals of the community. While specimens of Barley have been found in the ruins of Mohenjodaro, it has not been proved whether they used to consume rice or not. However the use of rice must have been known to them. Along with Barley the civilisation also cultivated peas and sesamum along with spices of brassica which is very similar to modern day Rai. While these have been major crops of the Indus Valley civilization, the civilisation also reared buffaloes, goat and sheep which prove that milk was major food article for these people. Along with the vegetarian food items the people of Indus valley civilization also consumed meat that was evident from the fact that meat was included in the offerings made for the dead. With the excavation of number of artefacts like sling balls of clay, copper fish hooks, the arrow heads, the flying knives etc strongly prove that these were required to kill and rear animals and birds which were dressed with these instruments and included in their food items after cooking. Their food items as such included beef, mutton, pork and poultry products, the flesh of Gharial or crocodile, turtle and tortoise, flesh of fresh local fishes from nearby rivers and dried fish from sea coasts. The bones and shells in hard form has been found in and around the houses of the Indus valley civilization.
Food in Indus Valley civilization further included a number of fruits which included the fruits like melon, promagranate, coconut fruit and Banana. The people of the valley were habituated in creating ornaments in the shape of various fruits which were found during excavation. The food of Indus valley civilization included spicy recipe as various forms of grinding stones have been found. The tradition of grinding stone has travelled al the way from the Stone Age which still exists in Indian society. The civilization took a number of precautionary steps to store the grains as they built large store houses with raised platforms and ventilating floor. It seemed to have been one of the government policies to secure grains in the granaries of the town. These granaries were built by the coolie labours who resided in two room cottages built in the same style as the rest of the town was planned. The town also depended on a continuous water supply. The water supply in Mohenjodaro and Harappa civilization was drawn from excellently built wells which was distributed all over through various channels was used for both cooking as well as drinking purpose.
Food in Indus Valley civilization was made in the utensils which included earthenware of various kinds and shapes. Most of the potteries were wheel made with fine and smooth appearances that were baked to give it strength. The potteries were painted with black or dark red slips. Such painted potteries included bowls, beakers, goblets, dishes, basins, saucers stands and jars. The excavations also include a number of vessels which are made up of Copper, silver, and lead.
Thus Food in Indus Valley civilization reflect the rural nature of the civilization which also highlight the use of copper, bronze and silver which were not only used for ornaments but also in making utensils that were used for cooking.
Food in Epic Period
Food in Epic period is largely included in Mahabharata and Manusmriti. While it represents the Ancient Indian tradition of cooking, at large it defines Indian culture which was depicted in various epic literatures.
Food in Epic period includes those references which are mentioned in the Epics of India namely Mahabharata, Ramayana and Manusmriti that are considered to be the earliest texts of India. These reflect the essence of India that prevailed in ancient times. Overall these too include wide variety of cereals and pulses that was consumed by the maharajas of India and its kingdom. Among cereals the epics classify four variety of food - hard food, soft food, food preparations which are sucked and food stuffs which are licked.
Of the rice preparations, parched rice, boiled rice, milk rice, Krasara and Saskull were the most common. Among the barley preparations groats, Yavaka and Apupas continued to be popular. Vatya was a gruel prepared with parched barley. Wheat preparations were not so common.
Food in Epic period further included the dairy products in which the Brahmana was not allowed to drink milk of sheep, mare, camels, deer, women, and a cow which had recently calved. Honey was yet very common along with curd, buttermilk, clarified butter etc. In case of consuming meat a rajan was free to take any kind of meat like the meat of the deer, birds, fishes, etc It is also mentioned that meat of the Ashwamedha horse was also taken by the victorious. As such all the animals which were offered for sacrifice were to be consumed after the sacrifice was over. Along with this the epic also lays down a detailed description about the meat taken by the beasts. Along with this the cuisine of epic period included large varieties fruits and vegetables along with sweets. While honey formed a major part of the diet it also included large variety of intoxicating drinks.
Thus the foods in Epic period only reiterate the traditions of ancient India which can see huge similarity with the early Vedic age. As the Vedic civilisation in India is known to be the earliest civilization this carries a number of similarity with Ancient Epic Period.
Food in Gupta Period
Food in Gupta Period has been largely discussed in the writings of Mahakavi Kalidasa and Chinese travellers like Fahien, Yuan Chwang and Itsing who visited India during this period and described the culture of India.
Food in Gupta Period is mainly discussed in the early texts of the Gupta Empire which includes the writings of Kalidasa, Angavijja and the Bharata Samhita. Texts of the Gupta period enlist a number of vegetarian food items which became popular under the influence of rising Buddhism and Jainism. Food in Gupta Period was an important source that reflected culture of the society. Along with this, food of Gupta Period has been used for medical purposes as well. The Puranas and Samhitas of this period along with Astanga Samgraha and other related texts describe the utility of various food items and recipes useful for medical purposes. Overall the Food in Gupta Period mainly included types of cereals and pulses, dairy products, meat preparations, honey and sweet preparations, spices along with salt and various kinds of oils and oil seeds and fruits and vegetables common in ancient India.
Food in Gupta Period has been classified into four traditional categories. Chinese travellers describe five types of solid foods, roots, stalks, leaves, flowers and fruits along with five soft foods which include boiled rice, Kul masa, goat, meat and cakes. Gupta period also demarcates a number of rice preparations. Sali rice which was grown in Bengal was available in various parts of the kingdom. Sastika rice was considered to be one of the most nourished varieties of rice. Mahavrihi variety was mainly grown in Magadha was used for religious purposes and offered to the king and distinguished persons. For medical purposes, red variety of salt rice was considered to be the best. Rice was taken along with curd, milk clarified butter, molasses and pulses. A special variety of milk rice was also popular among the Brahmins.
Food in Gupta Period Food in Gupta Period along with this also included dairy products of which milk was most important. Milk was recommended for the aged, children and ascetics. While cow`s milk was considered to be the best, the period also included the milk of elephants, buffaloes, camel, goat, sheep and mares. Apart from milk, other products like curd, creme of curd, and butter milk were equally popular. Along with this the Gupta Period also included some meat preparations which were as popular as the vegetarian delicacies. The food in Gupta Period included extensive use of honey in preparing sweet items. Four varieties of honey have been mentioned in the medical works of early Gupta period. Along with this use of sugarcane products was equally popular among the people. The most popular sweet dishes of the Gupta Period include Krsara, Modakas, Utkarika, Samydva, Pupa, Phenaka, Payasa, Abhyusa and Gudaudana, along with some new preparations like Morendaka. Along with this food in Gupta Period also included a number of salts and spices like dry ginger, Cumin, Mustard, Coriander, Myrobalan, long pepper, black pepper, Clove, cardamom, and Turmeric which was grown in the sea side while Asafoetida and bahlika was imported from Afghanistan. Fruits and vegetables of Gupta Period included Kashmir pears, plums, peaches, apricots and grapes which were planted in specific areas and Pomegranates and melons were grown everywhere. Along with this it also included a large variety of vegetables, pumpkins and so on.
Food in Gupta Period included a wide range of intoxicating drinks which has been mentioned in a number of texts. Unlike other generations, drinking was encouraged among the ladies as well. The Shastras of the Gupta age did not consider drinking by women as a sin and so did not prohibit drinking for women. Rather it was believed that drinking would charm women and so it was very popular among the women of royal families. A number of intoxicating drinks has been mentioned in Matsya Purana and Vayu Purana, said to be prepared from grapes, sugarcane, honey and rice. It also included types of wine which was flavoured with mango juice and patala flower.
While the food of the Gupta age was light and clean, it was cooked in vessels made up of gold, silver and other metals reflecting the progress of Indian civilization from Stone Age to Bronze Age.
Food in Mauryan Period
Food in Mauryan Period largely includes the food and drinks during 300BC to 75 AD which has been extensively discussed in Arthashastra, rock edicts of Ashoka and accounts of Greek historians.
Food in Mauryan PeriodFood in Mauryan Period largely depended on two seasons. While the winter season included rice and millet which formed a major part of the Maurya Empire, the summer season included wheat and barley. Along with this Kautilya mentions that there was a third crop that was cultivated between these two seasons. This included Munga and masa. Overall this period too followed the same style of food habits which included cereals, pulses, dairy products, meat and beverages.
Food in Mauryan Period differed from its predecessors in a very limited way when it introduced some more types of cereals which were popularly cultivated in ancient Mauryan Empire. In case of Rice along with the old varieties of rice namely Vrihi, Sali, Kodrava and Priyamgu two new varieties of rice namely Draka and Varaka was introduced. Similarly two kinds of Barley was also introduce among which one was cultivated while the other was not cultivated but commonly used in preparing a mess, a gruel, groats and cakes. While Gruel was prepared with an inferior food grains; Groats were eaten with curds. Wheat occupied a more vital place among the cereals than in the previous period, it being invariably mentioned with barley. Besides the old pulses, pea was indeed popular. Soup was indeed popular and known a Patanjali.
Food in Mauryan Period further included large variety of dairy products which were prepared from the milk of the cow which was supposed to be milked twice a day in rainy season, autumn and winter season while only once during the summer season and spring season. Besides cow`s milk of buffaloes, sheep and goat was also used. The Maurya Empire was equally habituated in taking meat products as Arthashastra lays down specific role of the Superintendent of Slaughter Houses. Along with meat fresh fishes were taken as well as sweet of Maurya Empire included honey and product of Sugarcane which further included juice of sugarcane, guda, raw sugar, sugar- candy and refined sugar which were amiably popular.
Food in Mauryan Period was largely prepared with salt and spices that include normal salt, rock salt, sea salt, bida salt and nitre along with the spices like long-pepper, ginger, cumin, seeds, white mustard, and corianders, cloves and turmeric. This further included four types of cardamom which are white, reddish white, short and black which was produced in India during that time. Along with other fruits and beverages the Maurya Empire included a variety of beverages with great variety of intoxicating liquors. Kautilya lays down the responsibility of the Superintendent of Liquor which shows the popularity of the liquor in Maurya Empire. Along with this Magasthenese mentions that Indians used to take liquor during the festivals. Among the common drinks the wines and rice beers were in common use along with butter milk, grape juice, fruit juices and syrups that was consumed extensively in the Maurya Empire.
Thus, food in Maurya Period basically followed the same style of cooking. The only difference is that cooking was done in a more polished way. With new crops it added to the stock of crops grown in Indian agriculture along with new food items
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Influence on the Cuisine
Religious Influence on Indian Food, Indian Cuisine
Religious Influence on Indian Food has spawned in generating diverse variety of food in various regions of the country. Indian cuisine reflects the culture and tradition of the country which comprises of countless landscapes, different languages, magnificent festivals and multi-ethnicity. Indian food is as diverse and wonderful as the colourful country itself. From the northern tip of Kashmir to the southern state of Kerala, and from the Western Ghats of Gujarat to Nagaland in the east, India`s food habits are as varied as the people of India. However, a particular pattern exists among all this diversity. The traditional religious Indian cuisine has also gained popularity across the globe. Religious influence on Indian food has bechanced due to the invaders, immigrations and intermingling of different people from the pre-British era. Moreover, the Mughal period has considerably influenced Indian cuisine. The presence of diverse climatic condition has also helped to broaden the sets of ingredients present in the cuisines.
In India, food has become a marker of different religious and social identity. Every religion is present with varying taboos and preferences, such as Hindus do not consume beef, Muslims do not eat pork but consume beef and Jain population do not eat roots or subterranean vegetables. This eating habit further supports the fact that Indian cuisine has witnessed a heavy influence of religion.
Influence of Hindu Religion
The main religious influence on Indian food is of the Hindu religion. The Hindu influence on Indian cuisine is immense. The Hindus are mostly vegetarians for ethical reasons and this has influenced their cuisine and eating habits. They consume a vast range of different vegetables like tomatoes, cauliflower, spinach, green beans and potatoes etc to make different lavish dishes. They include several other vegetables like cluster beans, beetroot, eggplant, cucumber okra, and white radish. Brahmins are one of the highest castes in Hindu religion. They are strict vegetarians and do not consume meat, fish or egg. However, Brahmins of the eastern coastal regions are non vegetarians.
Influence of Muslim Religion
Religious Influence on Indian Food, Indian Cuisine Another dominating religious influence on Indian food is by the Muslim community. The Muslim influence on Indian cuisine contoured the Indian cuisine while offering it that desired shape with blessed aroma and flavour. The Muslim culture has introduced the lavish Mughlai cuisine to Indian culinary culture. Biryani, the rice-Pulao with the mixture of meat and several meat roasts and kebabs, flavoured with Indian herbs and spices are some of the famous dishes. Due to the Muslim influence on Indian food, these dishes are always served with almonds, pistachios cashews and raisins. Muslims introduced Semolina, Phirni, leavened breads and the famous Tandoor style of cooking. In Muslim cooking culture, meats can also be cooked in Tandoors marinating them in yogurt and spices.
Influence of Jain Religion
Apart from Hindu and Muslim religion, Jainism community also has religious influence on Indian food. The Jain influence on Indian cuisine popularised the non-vegetarian items. In this community, people are influenced by the non-violence or ahimsa. Due to this they are strictly against consuming non-vegetarian food. They take the food that is not obtained by hurting any form of life, such as rice, lentils, wheat, oil seeds and beans, and plainly cultivated. They do not consume root vegetables, alcohol, honey and meat and also do not waste any food items. Basically their food concept is based on eating after sunrise in the morning and eating before sunset in the evening. They believe in fasting on certain days and offering food to poor people. They eat only those vegetables and fruits which become ripe on the tree.
Influence of Buddhist Religion
Moreover, Buddhism has also adequately influenced Indian cuisine. Followers of Buddhism are also generally vegetarians as they do not believe in hurting any form of life. But Buddhists, to some extent, do consume meat, but only if the animal has died out of natural causes and not hunted. Here also, vegetarian dishes reign supreme as a variety of specifically created cuisines have been developed, which are mostly inspired by the Tibetan culture. Various forms of soups, steamed and boiled vegetables and the most popular, Momos have greatly influenced the food habits of Indian people.
Influence of Christian Religion
Another important religious influence on Indian food is the Christian religion. Christian influence on Indian cuisine offered the touch of contemporaneousness, which later reshaped Indian food style to a great extent. Soups, salads and grilled pork chops marinated in spices and chillies are the famous recipes among Indian Christians. Dishes like sausages, pudding, cutlets, roasted chicken and turkeys, baked foods and cakes, biscuits and jams are famous Christian food items. Alcoholic drinks such as whisky, wine etc and spicy tea were some of the major drinks came to existence in India due to this religion. Thus, Religious Influence on Indian Food has been profound and great and has resulted in the formation of a diverse range of cuisines and dishes. The magic of Indian cuisine lies not only in the taste and tang but in its diverse pattern which marks Indian cuisine as the motley of several traditions, as the potpourri of various religion.
Ancient Buddhist Cuisine
Ancient Buddhist Cuisine has been well described in the early Buddhist and Jain works in which food has been classified into four categories. The ancient Buddhist cuisines mainly includes variety of rice preparations, dairy products and meat preparations along with sweets, salts and spices, oils and oilseeds and fruits and vegetables.
Ancient Buddhist CuisineAncient Buddhist Cuisine mainly includes cereals and pulses in which rice played a major role. Rice remained a major cereal of north India which was also included within the ancient Buddhist cuisine. Ancient Buddhist cuisine was mainly divided into four categories that were divided into soft food such as boiled rice, hard food such as roots and fruits, beverages and replenishable articles. Buddhist cuisine include all the cereals and pulses which were largely available in India along with the dairy products, meat preparations and beverages which were common in all the genres of ancient India. The Buddhist food was prepared with some salt and specific spices and oil and oil seeds with sweets fruits and vegetables.
Ancient Buddhist Cuisine included rice which formed one of the staple food of northern India. As mentioned in Ancient Buddhist Cuisine rice included both varieties of Virhi which was the common form of rice along with Sali which was a fine form of variety. Along with this there were three more types of rice namely Raktasali, Kamalasali and Mahasali which was mentioned in the Buddhist text on food. The Buddhist text narrates number of ways in which rice was cooked with some choicest flavours. Usually boiled rice was preferred by the Buddhist along with other preparations. Next to boiled rice the favourite preparation of rice was a gruel which is highly praised both in the Buddhist and the Jain works. Along with rice Barley and wheat were equally important cereals of ancient Buddhists which were taken in the form of cakes which was taken along with some inferior cereals. Buddhist text also mentions some of the most popular pulses that were cultivated in India. These include pulses like Moong, masura, masa, kulattha and kaldya or peas which was consumed with great choice. Among the common cuisines the Buddhist preferred soup which was taken with round fried pulse balls.
Ancient Buddhist Cuisine along with this included a number of dairy products which included milk of cows, buffaloes, goat and camel which was further processed into a number of products. Curd was a common form of milk product. Along with this Buddhist literature mentions about Sakarine known as Sikharini that was mixed with crystal sugar along with some more spices. Fresh butter was another common form that was found in ancient Buddhist cuisines. Ancient Buddhist Cuisine further included some meat preparations which identify them as non vegetarians. The Buddhist text mentions about the slaughter houses and the meat markets which show the popularity of meat among the Buddhist people. Flesh roasted on spit, meat of Sheep dressed with salt and pepper and fried in oil has been mentioned several times in the sutras. Meat soup is also very common. Meat has been elaborately prepared with great delicacy with ghee, curd and spices which make the food very delicious. Buddhist texts also include preparation of fish which was taken with Sali rice. While the Buddhists were vegetarian as well as non- vegetarian, the Jain community, on the other hand, were largely vegetarian who considered non vegetarian food to be a part of Himsa. The Jain community specifically avoids slaughter houses and avoids eating at night and finishes their food or last meal of the day before sun set.
Ancient Buddhist Cuisine along with also included a large number of beverages and sweets which were domestically prepared. Honey was commonly used that was commonly produced from small and big bees. Juice of Sugarcane was used which was extracted with the help of machines. This was common with gur that were included as sugar items of Buddhist community. Along with sweet fried rice the food in Buddhist community was prepared with specific spices and oil seeds. Buddha allowed his followers to take fruits and vegetables which included jojoba, mango, rose apple etc. Among the beverages and drinks plain cool water was largely preferred along with fresh fruit juice.
Thus, Ancient Buddhist Cuisine had been more or less similar with rest of Indian cuisines. It included both vegetarian and non vegetarian items which were cooked in utensils made up of wood, clay and copper. Utensils made up of gold, silver and precious stones were used by the rich people in the community. With a number of etiquettes which was to be followed while taking food the ancient Buddhist cuisine represented the same tradition of ancient India.
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Use of Spices in Ancient India
Use of Spices in Ancient India has been one of the important parts of Indian cooking. It indicates not only the types of spices used but also their cultivation in India. As the society was largely agrarian it cultivated a large variety of spices. Along with popular spices like cardamom, it also cultivated some specific spices in the form of seeds. Indian spices formed a major part of spice trade along with rest of the world. These highlight the popularity of Indian spices all over the world.Use of spices in India continued to remain popular in every age. The cultivation of spices in India began from pre-historic days. While some of the spices like cardamom, long pepper, black pepper, Turmeric and Asafoetida were commonly found in every generation, it also included some special types of spices that were imported from Afghanistan and other countries of the world. Cultivation of spices forms a major part of agriculture in India which formed the backbone of the Indian economy. Along with cultivation of vegetables and a number of pulses, ancient Indian society also cultivated spices which were used for both self consumption as well as trade. Use of spices in ancient India began with the Indus Valley Civilization which largely used spices like long pepper, black pepper, asafoetida along with salt. Among the Buddhists and Jains five varieties of salts were popular which included sea salt, black salt, rock salt, kitchen salt and red salt along with spices like pepper, long pepper, Cumin, Asafoetida, myrobalan, dry ginger and turmeric, Mustard and Clove. Vinegar and sour gruel was also used to garnish the food.
Use of Spices in Ancient India developed significantly during the Maurya Empire when Indian farmers cultivated some new variety of spices. Kautilya laid a lot of stress on the cultivation of spices. As such under the supervision of the superintendent of salts, the farmers of Maurya Empire cultivated six types of salts ranging from rock salt, sea salt, bida salt, nitre, Sauvarcala and Udbhedaja along with four types of cardamoms like white, reddish white, short and black mottled and friable along with other spices which include long pepper, ginger, cumin seeds, white mustard, coriander, cloves and turmeric. Besides this Cinnamon and other aromatics were produced in India while Vinegar with sugarcane juice, guda and honey was also equally popular. Spices used in the Gupta period included dry ginger, cumin, mustard, coriander, myrobalan, long pepper, black pepper, cloves, cardamom, turmeric and asafoetida and black pepper which were largely grown near the sea shores and Asafoetida, also called Bahlika, that was imported from Afghanistan.
Use of Spices in Ancient India as such remained one of the specialities of India that went on to become popular all over the world. The magic of Indian spices not only made ancient India one of the richest countries of South Asia, but also helped India to develop trade relations with ancient Romans and Araba who travelled all the way to buy the spices of India. The spices of India were equally popular with Columbus in the United States of America as well as with the English and Dutch empire that developed it as a major trade of India.
Thus use of Spices in ancient India reflects the culture of spicy food in India which traveled to every corner of the world.
Art of cooking in Ancient India
Art of cooking in Ancient India describes the style of cooking that was adopted by the Ancient Indian civilizations. Art of cooking in Ancient India went through a lot of change with new discoveries and the passage of time.
Art of cooking in Ancient depended on the kind of utensils employed for cooking. Art of cooking in ancient India reflects ancient Indian culture in terms of cooking, the food items to be included, the spices to be used etc. Art of cooking in Ancient India can be mainly studied in two sections. While the first section includes the type of utensils used by the ancient Indian society, the food items prepared by them, and the type of cooking adopted by them, the second section throws light on the social etiquettes which were generally followed by the ancient people while taking the food. Art of cooking in ancient India in the period of the Rig Veda saw the Indian people developing the system of cooking in a more organised form and with perfection. Before this the cooking was largely unplanned and nomadic. The text of Rig Veda lays down some procedure of cleaning the food and grinding the seeds for spices. In case of meat, it was now roasted and then prepared with some delicacies. This was practiced with more perfection by the following generations. Fully cooked non vegetarian food items became a part of Indian cooking along with soup which was one of the most popular food items taken in ancient India.
Different types of utensils were used in the households for cooking in ancient India. While the ancient families before Rig Veda largely used stone implements for cooking the future generations saw the use of metallic implements and utensils that were included in later Vedic Period kitchenware. Some of the utensils were made up of clay, wood and stone. The food items became richer with the use of clarified ghee, curd and other products that were used for garnishing the food. Art of cooking in ancient India further followed some rules and etiquette to be observed while cooking the food and then serving it. These rules became more rigid with the passage of time and division of society within various caste structures. Overall this highlighted the changes that developed within the ancient civilizations and marked its difference with each Empire. The lifestyle and art of cooking in Maurya Empire has been extensively discussed by Kautilya in Arthashastra in which he assigned separate superintendents for supervising separate jobs. Similarly Gupta period too had its variations.
. I am a mere pleb. I was not aware that discussions in pdf had the potential to cause 'earthquakes in academic circles'. Maybe that is why you come here often ..... Next time I see such an earthquakes ...I know who to credit it with. 
wat did i do nw?
