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Balancing act: US Army aviation
US Army aviation chiefs face the double funding challenge of maintaining battle-worn assets for current operations while investing in programmes for future systems, as Caitlin Harrington explains
It was evident when US Army officials came to Washington, DC, in early January to discuss the future of army aviation that they were engaged in a delicate balancing act: they admitted they were struggling to keep battle-worn helicopters in service but they also refused to give up on plans to buy sophisticated and expensive new aircraft.
"We have to be very careful to focus on current and future, not current versus future," Lieutenant General Stephen Speakes, the deputy chief of staff for programmes, said at the Association of the US Army Aviation Symposium on 9 January 2009. "I certainly solicit your support in ensuring we pursue the full vision of this and not try to do trade-offs between current versus future. Those [trade-offs] will be self-destructive."
Army officials are hoping that about USD35 billion freed up by the decision to cancel the Comanche helicopter programme in 2004 will be enough to sustain the service's helicopter fleet while also investing in new systems that need development dollars - such as the Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter (ARH), Joint Future Theatre Lift (JFTL) aircraft and unmanned aircraft.
As the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan wear on and the global economy continues to slump, however, every branch of the US military is facing the prospect of making trade-offs between costly weapon systems and cheaper, quick-to-build counter-insurgency-focused assets.
Secretary of Defense Robert Gates has called on Pentagon leaders to dramatically shift the US military's acquisition system to focus on the swift, cheap procurement of wartime assets needed in theatre. Under his vision, large-scale modernisation projects - such as the army's Future Combat Systems (FCS) - can only be pursued if elements of such projects have imm-ediate applications for forces in the field today.
Gates' decree leaves the army's aviation directorate with some tough decisions to make.
Army aviation leaders have arguably done a better job shifting to wartime footing than land forces or other services - if for no other reason than that the service's helicopters are working overtime and are in constant need of maintenance and upgrades to fight the current wars and stay in service for a few more years.
"They're flying at an operations tempo four to five times what they were planned for," said Brigadier General William Crosby, the army's aviation programme executive officer, at the army aviation conference.
Still, the army is not entirely committed to quick fixes for the current fight and has refused to give up on some developmental aviation programmes that are not all directly relevant to counterinsurgency.
The service was chastened in October 2008 when its ARH programme was cancelled because requirements were piled on to the point that the helicopter's fielding was significantly delayed. The army also continues to pursue JFTL: a futuristic heavy-lift aircraft that is not expected to enter the system development and demonstration phase until Fiscal Year 2015 (FY15), according to an army briefing chart.
Experts warn that investing in these far-reaching systems while also supporting battle-worn helicopters currently in service is not going to be easy.
"The challenge the army faces is to meet near-term requirements with an ageing fleet and also to have a viable modernisation plan for the long term," said David Johnson, a military analyst at RAND and a retired army colonel.
"Bridging that gap is a really difficult thing. We're working the fleet really hard and we're having battle damage and operational issues because of the increased use. So it poses a really difficult question of how you keep enough resources operational to meet current demands and how you think about the future, and there's this long period between the two."
The high operations tempo of the existing helicopter fleet has forced the army to devote significant resources to maintenance and upgrades. It has also put major pressure on the service to look towards quick replacement aircraft.
"Bottom line is that we are flying three times the amount of flying hours in Iraq and Afghanistan than we would normally back at a base in the US or Europe doing training/garrison operations," said Major Jimmie Cummings, an army spokesman at the Pentagon, on 4 February. "It stands to reason that the scheduled maintenance requirements are approximately three-fold also."
Damaging conditions
Helicopter maintenance is a daily challenge in Iraq due to desert sand, which wears down the leading edge of the rotor blades and creeps into the aircraft's engine, reducing the helicopter's lift. Cracking on ageing airframes, especially near the transmission, is another common problem.
"The engines take a beating and the blades take a tremendous beating," Raymond Haddad, director of support for Boeing's Chinook helicopter programme and former chief engineer for the CH-47D and CH-47F, told Jane's in a 9 January interview.
The army is struggling to stay on top of the problem. Engine air particle separators have been added to helicopter engines to protect them from sand, for example.
Overall maintenance procedures have evolved as well. A relatively new maintenance approach known as Performance Based Logistics (PBL) requires contractors to optimise the availability of parts while minimising cost and logistics. Instead of delivering a part every month the contractor agrees to provide a broader set of services and promises to ensure parts are available whenever they are needed.
The army's reset activities - which involve shipping helicopters back to the United States for complete disassembling, cleaning, inspection and replacement of broken parts - are also expected to increase dramatically in FY09. The service has reviewed past maintenance procedures and set up a process to maintain aircraft and identify problems before they cause a failure. More than 111 helicopters assigned to operations in Iraq will undergo reset in FY09-11, according to the army.
Still, keeping aircraft in flying shape is difficult. This is true particularly in Afghanistan, which lacks the centralised maintenance facilities that are now present in Iraq. What is more, maintenance challenges in Afghanistan could mount if the Obama administration decides to deploy an additional 30,000 US troops in the region this year.
"There's not much support up front in Afghanistan," said Colonel James Richardson, commander of the 101st Combat Aviation Brigade, at the army aviation conference. "You have to realise you might go down."
In Afghanistan, spare parts have to be flown to where the helicopters are staged and extra personnel are required to keep the helicopters flying long distances in hot weather conditions.
In addition to normal wear and tear, helicopters remain vulnerable to the vagaries of combat in the open desert: namely, brownout conditions and small-arms fire.
Brownout - which occurs when helicopter rotors stir up swirling dust and obscure the pilot's vision during take-off and landing - remains the "biggest threat" in Afghanistan, according to Col Richardson. The phenomenon has also posed a major obstacle to flight operations in Iraq.
Figures released in June 2007 by the US Project On Government Oversight - a non-governmental organisation - show that the US Army suffered 41 brownout incidents from FY02-05, with the percentage of brownout-related accidents rising from 8.7 per cent of all US Army helicopter accidents before the invasion of Iraq to 17.6 per cent during it.
"Weather is a big factor here," Chief Warrant Officer (CW-3) and Chinook pilot Ramon Sandejas told Jane's from Iraq on 29 January. "It's one of the biggest things to consider for any aviator."
Adjusting tactics, techniques and procedures (TTPs) - such as pursuing aggressive landings to beat the onset of dust clouds - has helped reduce the number of crashes caused by brownout.
Lieutenant Colonel Scott Kubica, air task force chief for the US Army Combat Readiness/Safety Center, said on 3 February that the decline could also be attributed to "improved landing zones [LZs], familiarisation with tactics, techniques and procedures, experienced aircrews familiar with the desert environment and leader engagement during mission planning - specifically LZ selection".
Col Kubica told Jane's that brownout-related incidents have declined from 14 incidents at the start of Operation 'Iraqi Freedom' in 2003 to five in 2006 and only one in 2008.
However, the problem persists, particularly for Chinook and Black Hawk aircraft, and army officials are working to deploy new technology to reduce the risks of brownout.
CW-3 Sandejas - who has flown the newest Chinook, the CH-47F, and its predecessor, the CH-47D - said the F model includes features that have helped to mitigate his concerns about treacherous weather conditions.
The helicopter's new Common Avionics Architecture System (CAAS) cockpit includes a 'coupling capability' that enables the aircraft to fly a pre-planned route through harsh weather by simply pressing a button.
"It gives you a certain level of comfort to know that, if the weather goes down on you unpredictably, you can actually still safely manoeuvre the aircraft," said CW-3 Sandejas.
The CH-47F also features moving map displays that allow pilots to keep real-time track of where they are via GPS, rather than having to triangulate their location using paper maps.
Other anti-brownout systems are also under development but have not yet been fielded. Among them is the Sandblaster that is being developed by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and Sikorsky. The system fuses digital terrain data and advanced helicopter flight controls to enable pilots to see through the dust.
Hostile fire incidents
While brownout is the greatest concern for some army aviation commanders, others say they are still worried about small-arms fire taking its toll in both Iraq and Afghanistan.
"The primary threat right now is heavy machine guns, small-arms fire and those types of things," said Lieutenant Colonel Van Voorhees at the army aviation conference.
As of 21 January 2009 there had been a combined total of 40 hostile fire incidents in Afghanistan (since 2001) and Iraq (since 2003), according to Maj Cummings, the army spokesman. Such incidents could include both small- arms fire and shoulder-fired missile incidents, which can often be detected via the helicopter's defensive aids suite.
As in the case of brownout, pilots have adapted TTPs to deal with the threat. Helicopters have adjusted from flying high - where they are highly visible targets - to flying lower; they try to stay away from built-up areas; and they endeavour to use night flying to their advantage.
As a result, Maj Cummings said the number of aircraft damaged by hostile fire in Iraq and Afghanistan has dropped significantly. He said other reasons for the decline include "significant improvements in our survivability equipment" and "better situational awareness".
Nevertheless, army officials say they are still worried about small-arms fire in particular. They are looking to the defence industry to come up with an acoustic system that can be integrated in the widely used AN/APR-39 radar warning receiver to help pilots detect incoming ground fire.
Among systems in development is an acoustic hostile fire indicator built by BAE Systems. The technology uses noise-reduction and data-location algorithms as well as sensors within an aircraft to detect small-arms fire and alert the pilot to take evasive action.
To date, the army has not publicly announced the fielding of any systems to meet the small-arms threat, however.
As the high operations tempo and stresses of hostile fire and brownout continue to tax the army's helicopter fleet, service officials say they are worried about finding the cash to buy quick replacements for exhausted airframes.
"If you're burning up your fleet at four or five times the rate, you've got to have a plan to do something about it four or five times faster," said Gen Crosby.
"And with the budget crunch and things we're going to be facing, we're going to have some significant challenges when we buy an aircraft based on a 12-year life cycle," he added.
Army officials say that quickly replacing ageing aircraft is a top priority to avoid any major capability gaps in Iraq and Afghanistan. At the same time, however, they are loathe to give up on ambitious projects that will take several years to get into service, such as ARH and JFTL.
Helicopter dilemma
One of the starkest examples of the struggle to balance short-term needs and long-term priorities can be seen in the army's attempt to maintain a robust and capable armed reconnaissance helicopter fleet. On one hand the army is obligated to invest resources in existing armed reconnaissance airframes for the current war; on the other it has not given up on the new ARH, which has a track record of falling behind schedule and incorporating untested technology.
The army originally planned to retire its workhorse scout helicopter, the OH-58D Kiowa Warrior, and begin replacing it with the new ARH in 2009. However, the army cancelled its ARH contract with Bell in October 2008 because the requirements process had spun out of control; Bell officials conceded the ARH had turned into a new invention rather than an off-the-shelf solution, causing it to suffer from major cost overruns and schedule delays.
Now army acquisition officials must find a way to maintain the Kiowas - a fleet of about 341 aircraft that each fly on average 100 gruelling hours per month in Iraq - until 2020. The army has also had to scramble to find an interim replacement for 1980s-vintage National Guard AH-64A helicopters that were scheduled for replacement with the ARH. Additional AH-64D Apache Longbow attack helicopters will also have to be provided to two Air National Guard units.
Looking ahead, the army faces the challenge of splitting the money originally devoted to ARH - about USD942 million - between the costs of sustaining the Kiowa fleet and those of buying a new armed reconnaissance helicopter.
Army officials say they still want to buy 512 new ARH helicopters, but the number will ultimately depend on whether the service purchases airframes off the shelf or if it chooses the more expensive option of developing a new aircraft.
Gen Crosby said the Pentagon's Joint Requirements Oversight Council is likely to make a final decision on ARH requirements in February or March 2009.
The bare-bones requirement is a helicopter that can operate at 35 degrees Celsius and 6,000 ft (1,830 m): the kind of 'hot and high' conditions that prevail in Afghanistan.
Varying assets
Ultimately, however, the new ARH will have to fill the shoes of the low-flying, relatively small and manoeuvrable Kiowa, which performs both observation and attack missions. In terms of targeting, the aircraft can designate targets for precision-guided munitions carried by Apache helicopters and other airborne or ground-based systems. In terms of attack, it is armed with FIM-92 Stinger air-to-air missiles to face air threats and can unleash defensive or suppressive fire on ground threats with Hellfire missiles, 2.75-inch (7 cm) rockets or a .50-calibre machine gun.
The Kiowa served the army particularly well in the early days of the invasion of Baghdad because the doors can be removed to enable troops to see out of the sides, according to Johnson, the RAND expert.
Boeing's AH-64 Apache attack helicopter - originally designed for penetrating attacks deep in enemy territory - has also become a part of the army's struggle to keep armed reconnaissance assets widely available in theatre.
The Apache - which is already bridging the gap to the ARH in the Air National Guard - may increasingly be called on to help the Kiowa shoulder the armed reconnaissance mission as more time passes without a new ARH. "The question is 'How many Apaches do you need to do that and how much stress are you putting on the Apache fleet?'" said Johnson.
Designed as the army's primary attack helicopter, the Apache is a 'scout' that is intended to fight deep in enemy territory using Hellfire missiles to destroy armoured vehicles and other targets. The helicopter is also armed with a 30 mm M230 chain gun and Hydra 70 (2.75 inch) rockets.
The army began receiving the AH-64A Apache in the early 1980s and transitioned to the AH-64D Apache Longbow in the early 1990s. To date, 570 Longbow helicopters have been delivered to the service.
Meanwhile, the Apache Block 3 - which is designed to operate with FCS and to control unmanned aircraft from the cockpit - is set for a limited user test in November 2009. That test will be followed by a milestone decision in April 2010 on low-rate initial production and a first delivery planned for 2011.
Although the Apache was designed to penetrate beyond the front line of battle, it has actually done better in helping to fill the gap in armed reconnaissance and providing close air support behind ground manoeuvre forces.
In particular, the Apache has been used effectively in daylight armed reconnaissance missions. In this role it can fly over the shoulders of ground forces, guarding their flanks, protecting supply lines and conducting standoff attacks on enemy troops.
"[The Apache] was designed for something different but I think it's filling the gap [in armed reconnaissance] pretty well," said Johnson.
One the other hand, the effectiveness and survivability of the Apache as an attack helicopter has been called into question over the past few years. It was designed during the Cold War to kill Soviet forces as they came through the Fulda Gap between East and West Germany - not to move ahead of friendly forces to engage an enemy that uses asymmetric tactics and operates on open desert terrain.
In March 2003 30 Apaches in the 11th Attack Helicopter regiment conducted a deep attack operation against the Iraqi Medina Division. Iraqis relied on ground observers who used cell phones to report the location of the Apaches, which ran into withering small-arms and machine gun fire. No appreciable damage was done to the Medina Division but all 30 Apaches were hit with an average of 15 to 20 bullet holes each and one Apache was lost in action and its crew captured.
Utility helicopters
The US Army has about 500 Chinook helicopters, which are used primarily for transporting troops and cargo and can haul up to 50,000 lb (22,700 kg) internally or on a sling.
The Chinook is also used in air assaults, putting troops or equipment on the ground or picking them up.
The helicopter is flying in Iraq and Afghanistan at four or five times the mission rate it experiences during peacetime operations, clocking 40 to 50 hours a month in combat operations.
The Chinook is powerful for its size because it has two counter-rotating rotors, minimising torque and allowing all the power to go directly into lifting the aircraft. As a result the helicopter is among the most efficient for heavy operations in Afghanistan, where aircraft are power-limited at high altitudes in hot weather. "We go places no one else can go," said Boeing's Haddad.
Today the army still uses about 300 1980s-vintage CH-47D models. These ageing Chi-nooks, however, are slowly being replaced with CH-47F models, which boast a new fuselage that is less prone to cracking as well as new digital avionics and a flight control system that reduces the risk of brownout.
The only things that are not new in the F model are the dynamic components, including the rotor and the drive system.
"You're going to hear that brownout is not as bad with the F model as with the D," said Colonel Newman Shufflebarger, the project manager for helicopters in the army's programme executive office for aviation.
Mission-capable rates are also higher for the CH-47F, at 85-90 per cent compared to 70-80 per cent for the CH-47D.
The army plans to purchase 452 F models, with the first aircraft deployed to Iraq in June.
Army officials are also replacing existing special operations variants of the Chinook - the MH-47D and MH-47E models - with 61 new MH-47G helicopters.
The MH-47G is a derivative of the CH-47F but it does not have a new fuselage. Upgrading special operations helicopters to the MH-47G involves structural inspections and efforts to repair battle damage to the airframe.
There are several features unique to the MH-47G, however, including an aerial refuelling boom and larger fuel tanks that enable the helicopter to greatly increase its range. The MH-47G also has a forward-looking infrared system for night operations and terrain-following/terrain-avoidance radar. Boeing officials noted the helicopter's enhanced survivability, including both active and passive countermeasures. Directional infrared countermeasures may also be retrofitted.
The first operational deployment for the MH-47G was with the army's 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment in Afghanistan, starting in early March 2007.
Another utility helicopter, the UH-60 Black Hawk, is also heavily used in the Central Command area of responsibility, with 337 of the type operating in both Iraq and Afghanistan on any given day.
The army is in the midst of modernising the Black Hawk fleet with the procurement of the new 'Mike' (UH-60M) model. The first unit equipped with the 'Mike' version has just been fielded and there are now about 30 of the type flying in theatre today.
The UH-60M has a more powerful engine, an improved gearbox and better handling features. It also has an enhanced laser warning system and an embedded GPS/inertial navigation system, improving its surviv- ability and situational awareness.
The army's new Light Utility Helicopter (LUH), designated UH-72A Lakota, continues to roll off the production line. By 2015 the service is expected to acquire 345 Lakotas, which are designed by BAE Systems primarily for domestic and humanitarian missions. The army's decision to build the LUH frees up combat utility helicopters such as the Black Hawk for overseas missions.
The army's total LUH fleet is scheduled to be in service by 2015. The LUH replaces Bell UH-1 Hueys, Sikorsky UH-60A medical-evacuation helicopters and some US Army National Guard OH-58A/C Kiowa Warriors. These aircraft are all scheduled for retirement by 2023, according to Colonel Neil Thurgood, the army's utility helicopters project manager.
The challenge that lies ahead for the US Army will be maintaining the existing helicopter fleet while also securing funding for the continued production of upgraded variants - from the CH-47F to the MH-47G, AH-64D and Apache Block III, as well as the UH-60M.
Fixed-wing programmes
As if that challenge were not enough, however, army officials must also set aside funds for fixed-wing aircraft. They are additionally keen to invest in the development of next-generation aircraft - such as JFTL, ARH and new unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) - as well as develop technologies to fill emerging gaps in capability.
Army officials will also need to find some start-up funds for the Aerial Common Sensor (ACS) signals intelligence aircraft. The programme was terminated but never cancelled; it is expected to start up again in 2009 and may once more become a joint programme with the US Navy.
Funding for additional orders of the Alenia Aeronautica C-27J Spartan tactical transport aircraft, which was ordered by both the army and the US Air Force (USAF) under the Joint Cargo Aircraft (JCA) programme, will also need to be made available. The army and USAF have so far ordered 78 C-27Js under a contract signed in June 2007. The two services are ultimately expected to buy at least 145 aircraft.
The army has additionally begun to make serious investments in UAVs, including the Shadow and Raven types in the field today. However, army aviation officials say more research and development money is needed to support the development of UAVs with low signatures, more weapons and reliable jet fuel engines.
Looking to the future, the army is conducting a series of 'capabilities-based assessments' to determine what types of technology are needed to ensure readiness for future conflicts. Two of the assessments - on the topics of aircraft survivability and degraded visual environment - will deal with the pressing problems of hostile fire and brownout in the current wars.
Other assessments, however, address longer-term capability gaps across army aviation. Decisions about filling some of these gaps - including the need for JFTL, for example - are controversial because they involve major investments in expensive and far-reaching technology.
More money than sense?
Today the notional concept for the JFTL is a conventional tilt-rotor aircraft that lifts 30 tons vertically; it would serve as a heavy-lift capability to carry Stryker and FCS vehicles. The army's current plan for JFTL is to establish an experimental flight programme in 2012. The service will spend more than USD40 million in FY08-09 on risk-reduction efforts, including 11 industry contracts and eight government tasks.
However, the JFTL has drawn scrutiny from the US Defense Science Board (DSB) and some military analysts who warn that it poses major technical challenges because of its proposed size. The rotor diameter and size required to provide adequate lift are unprecedented and development of the appropriate rotor technology could be time-consuming and expensive.
Moreover, some analysts have questioned whether that investment would be worth the money, especially when the final JFTL fleet is expected to lift only one FCS brigade behind enemy lines and may still be vulnerable to air-defence systems.
The DSB has argued that JFTL money might be better spent on a lower-cost, lower-risk heavy-lift aircraft that can carry just 20 tons instead of 30 tons.
The DSB's assertion that less ambitious technology may be more practical for longer-term projects is in line with Secretary Gates' reasoning for revamping the Pentagon's procurement system.
In the years ahead, a deciding factor in Pentagon budget battles may be the willingness of services to pursue quick fixes that may not be perfect solutions but are good enough to get the job done.
So far, army aviation appears to have caught on to this approach more quickly than other branches of the US military. However, the future success of army aviation may depend on the willingness of army leaders to resist the temptation to advocate long-term developmental projects in favour of shorter-term investments in helicopter upgrades and new aircraft acquisitions with relatively modest requirements.
Caitlin Harrington is a JDW Staff Reporter based in Washington, DC
US Army aviation chiefs face the double funding challenge of maintaining battle-worn assets for current operations while investing in programmes for future systems, as Caitlin Harrington explains
It was evident when US Army officials came to Washington, DC, in early January to discuss the future of army aviation that they were engaged in a delicate balancing act: they admitted they were struggling to keep battle-worn helicopters in service but they also refused to give up on plans to buy sophisticated and expensive new aircraft.
"We have to be very careful to focus on current and future, not current versus future," Lieutenant General Stephen Speakes, the deputy chief of staff for programmes, said at the Association of the US Army Aviation Symposium on 9 January 2009. "I certainly solicit your support in ensuring we pursue the full vision of this and not try to do trade-offs between current versus future. Those [trade-offs] will be self-destructive."
Army officials are hoping that about USD35 billion freed up by the decision to cancel the Comanche helicopter programme in 2004 will be enough to sustain the service's helicopter fleet while also investing in new systems that need development dollars - such as the Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter (ARH), Joint Future Theatre Lift (JFTL) aircraft and unmanned aircraft.
As the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan wear on and the global economy continues to slump, however, every branch of the US military is facing the prospect of making trade-offs between costly weapon systems and cheaper, quick-to-build counter-insurgency-focused assets.
Secretary of Defense Robert Gates has called on Pentagon leaders to dramatically shift the US military's acquisition system to focus on the swift, cheap procurement of wartime assets needed in theatre. Under his vision, large-scale modernisation projects - such as the army's Future Combat Systems (FCS) - can only be pursued if elements of such projects have imm-ediate applications for forces in the field today.
Gates' decree leaves the army's aviation directorate with some tough decisions to make.
Army aviation leaders have arguably done a better job shifting to wartime footing than land forces or other services - if for no other reason than that the service's helicopters are working overtime and are in constant need of maintenance and upgrades to fight the current wars and stay in service for a few more years.
"They're flying at an operations tempo four to five times what they were planned for," said Brigadier General William Crosby, the army's aviation programme executive officer, at the army aviation conference.
Still, the army is not entirely committed to quick fixes for the current fight and has refused to give up on some developmental aviation programmes that are not all directly relevant to counterinsurgency.
The service was chastened in October 2008 when its ARH programme was cancelled because requirements were piled on to the point that the helicopter's fielding was significantly delayed. The army also continues to pursue JFTL: a futuristic heavy-lift aircraft that is not expected to enter the system development and demonstration phase until Fiscal Year 2015 (FY15), according to an army briefing chart.
Experts warn that investing in these far-reaching systems while also supporting battle-worn helicopters currently in service is not going to be easy.
"The challenge the army faces is to meet near-term requirements with an ageing fleet and also to have a viable modernisation plan for the long term," said David Johnson, a military analyst at RAND and a retired army colonel.
"Bridging that gap is a really difficult thing. We're working the fleet really hard and we're having battle damage and operational issues because of the increased use. So it poses a really difficult question of how you keep enough resources operational to meet current demands and how you think about the future, and there's this long period between the two."
The high operations tempo of the existing helicopter fleet has forced the army to devote significant resources to maintenance and upgrades. It has also put major pressure on the service to look towards quick replacement aircraft.
"Bottom line is that we are flying three times the amount of flying hours in Iraq and Afghanistan than we would normally back at a base in the US or Europe doing training/garrison operations," said Major Jimmie Cummings, an army spokesman at the Pentagon, on 4 February. "It stands to reason that the scheduled maintenance requirements are approximately three-fold also."
Damaging conditions
Helicopter maintenance is a daily challenge in Iraq due to desert sand, which wears down the leading edge of the rotor blades and creeps into the aircraft's engine, reducing the helicopter's lift. Cracking on ageing airframes, especially near the transmission, is another common problem.
"The engines take a beating and the blades take a tremendous beating," Raymond Haddad, director of support for Boeing's Chinook helicopter programme and former chief engineer for the CH-47D and CH-47F, told Jane's in a 9 January interview.
The army is struggling to stay on top of the problem. Engine air particle separators have been added to helicopter engines to protect them from sand, for example.
Overall maintenance procedures have evolved as well. A relatively new maintenance approach known as Performance Based Logistics (PBL) requires contractors to optimise the availability of parts while minimising cost and logistics. Instead of delivering a part every month the contractor agrees to provide a broader set of services and promises to ensure parts are available whenever they are needed.
The army's reset activities - which involve shipping helicopters back to the United States for complete disassembling, cleaning, inspection and replacement of broken parts - are also expected to increase dramatically in FY09. The service has reviewed past maintenance procedures and set up a process to maintain aircraft and identify problems before they cause a failure. More than 111 helicopters assigned to operations in Iraq will undergo reset in FY09-11, according to the army.
Still, keeping aircraft in flying shape is difficult. This is true particularly in Afghanistan, which lacks the centralised maintenance facilities that are now present in Iraq. What is more, maintenance challenges in Afghanistan could mount if the Obama administration decides to deploy an additional 30,000 US troops in the region this year.
"There's not much support up front in Afghanistan," said Colonel James Richardson, commander of the 101st Combat Aviation Brigade, at the army aviation conference. "You have to realise you might go down."
In Afghanistan, spare parts have to be flown to where the helicopters are staged and extra personnel are required to keep the helicopters flying long distances in hot weather conditions.
In addition to normal wear and tear, helicopters remain vulnerable to the vagaries of combat in the open desert: namely, brownout conditions and small-arms fire.
Brownout - which occurs when helicopter rotors stir up swirling dust and obscure the pilot's vision during take-off and landing - remains the "biggest threat" in Afghanistan, according to Col Richardson. The phenomenon has also posed a major obstacle to flight operations in Iraq.
Figures released in June 2007 by the US Project On Government Oversight - a non-governmental organisation - show that the US Army suffered 41 brownout incidents from FY02-05, with the percentage of brownout-related accidents rising from 8.7 per cent of all US Army helicopter accidents before the invasion of Iraq to 17.6 per cent during it.
"Weather is a big factor here," Chief Warrant Officer (CW-3) and Chinook pilot Ramon Sandejas told Jane's from Iraq on 29 January. "It's one of the biggest things to consider for any aviator."
Adjusting tactics, techniques and procedures (TTPs) - such as pursuing aggressive landings to beat the onset of dust clouds - has helped reduce the number of crashes caused by brownout.
Lieutenant Colonel Scott Kubica, air task force chief for the US Army Combat Readiness/Safety Center, said on 3 February that the decline could also be attributed to "improved landing zones [LZs], familiarisation with tactics, techniques and procedures, experienced aircrews familiar with the desert environment and leader engagement during mission planning - specifically LZ selection".
Col Kubica told Jane's that brownout-related incidents have declined from 14 incidents at the start of Operation 'Iraqi Freedom' in 2003 to five in 2006 and only one in 2008.
However, the problem persists, particularly for Chinook and Black Hawk aircraft, and army officials are working to deploy new technology to reduce the risks of brownout.
CW-3 Sandejas - who has flown the newest Chinook, the CH-47F, and its predecessor, the CH-47D - said the F model includes features that have helped to mitigate his concerns about treacherous weather conditions.
The helicopter's new Common Avionics Architecture System (CAAS) cockpit includes a 'coupling capability' that enables the aircraft to fly a pre-planned route through harsh weather by simply pressing a button.
"It gives you a certain level of comfort to know that, if the weather goes down on you unpredictably, you can actually still safely manoeuvre the aircraft," said CW-3 Sandejas.
The CH-47F also features moving map displays that allow pilots to keep real-time track of where they are via GPS, rather than having to triangulate their location using paper maps.
Other anti-brownout systems are also under development but have not yet been fielded. Among them is the Sandblaster that is being developed by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and Sikorsky. The system fuses digital terrain data and advanced helicopter flight controls to enable pilots to see through the dust.
Hostile fire incidents
While brownout is the greatest concern for some army aviation commanders, others say they are still worried about small-arms fire taking its toll in both Iraq and Afghanistan.
"The primary threat right now is heavy machine guns, small-arms fire and those types of things," said Lieutenant Colonel Van Voorhees at the army aviation conference.
As of 21 January 2009 there had been a combined total of 40 hostile fire incidents in Afghanistan (since 2001) and Iraq (since 2003), according to Maj Cummings, the army spokesman. Such incidents could include both small- arms fire and shoulder-fired missile incidents, which can often be detected via the helicopter's defensive aids suite.
As in the case of brownout, pilots have adapted TTPs to deal with the threat. Helicopters have adjusted from flying high - where they are highly visible targets - to flying lower; they try to stay away from built-up areas; and they endeavour to use night flying to their advantage.
As a result, Maj Cummings said the number of aircraft damaged by hostile fire in Iraq and Afghanistan has dropped significantly. He said other reasons for the decline include "significant improvements in our survivability equipment" and "better situational awareness".
Nevertheless, army officials say they are still worried about small-arms fire in particular. They are looking to the defence industry to come up with an acoustic system that can be integrated in the widely used AN/APR-39 radar warning receiver to help pilots detect incoming ground fire.
Among systems in development is an acoustic hostile fire indicator built by BAE Systems. The technology uses noise-reduction and data-location algorithms as well as sensors within an aircraft to detect small-arms fire and alert the pilot to take evasive action.
To date, the army has not publicly announced the fielding of any systems to meet the small-arms threat, however.
As the high operations tempo and stresses of hostile fire and brownout continue to tax the army's helicopter fleet, service officials say they are worried about finding the cash to buy quick replacements for exhausted airframes.
"If you're burning up your fleet at four or five times the rate, you've got to have a plan to do something about it four or five times faster," said Gen Crosby.
"And with the budget crunch and things we're going to be facing, we're going to have some significant challenges when we buy an aircraft based on a 12-year life cycle," he added.
Army officials say that quickly replacing ageing aircraft is a top priority to avoid any major capability gaps in Iraq and Afghanistan. At the same time, however, they are loathe to give up on ambitious projects that will take several years to get into service, such as ARH and JFTL.
Helicopter dilemma
One of the starkest examples of the struggle to balance short-term needs and long-term priorities can be seen in the army's attempt to maintain a robust and capable armed reconnaissance helicopter fleet. On one hand the army is obligated to invest resources in existing armed reconnaissance airframes for the current war; on the other it has not given up on the new ARH, which has a track record of falling behind schedule and incorporating untested technology.
The army originally planned to retire its workhorse scout helicopter, the OH-58D Kiowa Warrior, and begin replacing it with the new ARH in 2009. However, the army cancelled its ARH contract with Bell in October 2008 because the requirements process had spun out of control; Bell officials conceded the ARH had turned into a new invention rather than an off-the-shelf solution, causing it to suffer from major cost overruns and schedule delays.
Now army acquisition officials must find a way to maintain the Kiowas - a fleet of about 341 aircraft that each fly on average 100 gruelling hours per month in Iraq - until 2020. The army has also had to scramble to find an interim replacement for 1980s-vintage National Guard AH-64A helicopters that were scheduled for replacement with the ARH. Additional AH-64D Apache Longbow attack helicopters will also have to be provided to two Air National Guard units.
Looking ahead, the army faces the challenge of splitting the money originally devoted to ARH - about USD942 million - between the costs of sustaining the Kiowa fleet and those of buying a new armed reconnaissance helicopter.
Army officials say they still want to buy 512 new ARH helicopters, but the number will ultimately depend on whether the service purchases airframes off the shelf or if it chooses the more expensive option of developing a new aircraft.
Gen Crosby said the Pentagon's Joint Requirements Oversight Council is likely to make a final decision on ARH requirements in February or March 2009.
The bare-bones requirement is a helicopter that can operate at 35 degrees Celsius and 6,000 ft (1,830 m): the kind of 'hot and high' conditions that prevail in Afghanistan.
Varying assets
Ultimately, however, the new ARH will have to fill the shoes of the low-flying, relatively small and manoeuvrable Kiowa, which performs both observation and attack missions. In terms of targeting, the aircraft can designate targets for precision-guided munitions carried by Apache helicopters and other airborne or ground-based systems. In terms of attack, it is armed with FIM-92 Stinger air-to-air missiles to face air threats and can unleash defensive or suppressive fire on ground threats with Hellfire missiles, 2.75-inch (7 cm) rockets or a .50-calibre machine gun.
The Kiowa served the army particularly well in the early days of the invasion of Baghdad because the doors can be removed to enable troops to see out of the sides, according to Johnson, the RAND expert.
Boeing's AH-64 Apache attack helicopter - originally designed for penetrating attacks deep in enemy territory - has also become a part of the army's struggle to keep armed reconnaissance assets widely available in theatre.
The Apache - which is already bridging the gap to the ARH in the Air National Guard - may increasingly be called on to help the Kiowa shoulder the armed reconnaissance mission as more time passes without a new ARH. "The question is 'How many Apaches do you need to do that and how much stress are you putting on the Apache fleet?'" said Johnson.
Designed as the army's primary attack helicopter, the Apache is a 'scout' that is intended to fight deep in enemy territory using Hellfire missiles to destroy armoured vehicles and other targets. The helicopter is also armed with a 30 mm M230 chain gun and Hydra 70 (2.75 inch) rockets.
The army began receiving the AH-64A Apache in the early 1980s and transitioned to the AH-64D Apache Longbow in the early 1990s. To date, 570 Longbow helicopters have been delivered to the service.
Meanwhile, the Apache Block 3 - which is designed to operate with FCS and to control unmanned aircraft from the cockpit - is set for a limited user test in November 2009. That test will be followed by a milestone decision in April 2010 on low-rate initial production and a first delivery planned for 2011.
Although the Apache was designed to penetrate beyond the front line of battle, it has actually done better in helping to fill the gap in armed reconnaissance and providing close air support behind ground manoeuvre forces.
In particular, the Apache has been used effectively in daylight armed reconnaissance missions. In this role it can fly over the shoulders of ground forces, guarding their flanks, protecting supply lines and conducting standoff attacks on enemy troops.
"[The Apache] was designed for something different but I think it's filling the gap [in armed reconnaissance] pretty well," said Johnson.
One the other hand, the effectiveness and survivability of the Apache as an attack helicopter has been called into question over the past few years. It was designed during the Cold War to kill Soviet forces as they came through the Fulda Gap between East and West Germany - not to move ahead of friendly forces to engage an enemy that uses asymmetric tactics and operates on open desert terrain.
In March 2003 30 Apaches in the 11th Attack Helicopter regiment conducted a deep attack operation against the Iraqi Medina Division. Iraqis relied on ground observers who used cell phones to report the location of the Apaches, which ran into withering small-arms and machine gun fire. No appreciable damage was done to the Medina Division but all 30 Apaches were hit with an average of 15 to 20 bullet holes each and one Apache was lost in action and its crew captured.
Utility helicopters
The US Army has about 500 Chinook helicopters, which are used primarily for transporting troops and cargo and can haul up to 50,000 lb (22,700 kg) internally or on a sling.
The Chinook is also used in air assaults, putting troops or equipment on the ground or picking them up.
The helicopter is flying in Iraq and Afghanistan at four or five times the mission rate it experiences during peacetime operations, clocking 40 to 50 hours a month in combat operations.
The Chinook is powerful for its size because it has two counter-rotating rotors, minimising torque and allowing all the power to go directly into lifting the aircraft. As a result the helicopter is among the most efficient for heavy operations in Afghanistan, where aircraft are power-limited at high altitudes in hot weather. "We go places no one else can go," said Boeing's Haddad.
Today the army still uses about 300 1980s-vintage CH-47D models. These ageing Chi-nooks, however, are slowly being replaced with CH-47F models, which boast a new fuselage that is less prone to cracking as well as new digital avionics and a flight control system that reduces the risk of brownout.
The only things that are not new in the F model are the dynamic components, including the rotor and the drive system.
"You're going to hear that brownout is not as bad with the F model as with the D," said Colonel Newman Shufflebarger, the project manager for helicopters in the army's programme executive office for aviation.
Mission-capable rates are also higher for the CH-47F, at 85-90 per cent compared to 70-80 per cent for the CH-47D.
The army plans to purchase 452 F models, with the first aircraft deployed to Iraq in June.
Army officials are also replacing existing special operations variants of the Chinook - the MH-47D and MH-47E models - with 61 new MH-47G helicopters.
The MH-47G is a derivative of the CH-47F but it does not have a new fuselage. Upgrading special operations helicopters to the MH-47G involves structural inspections and efforts to repair battle damage to the airframe.
There are several features unique to the MH-47G, however, including an aerial refuelling boom and larger fuel tanks that enable the helicopter to greatly increase its range. The MH-47G also has a forward-looking infrared system for night operations and terrain-following/terrain-avoidance radar. Boeing officials noted the helicopter's enhanced survivability, including both active and passive countermeasures. Directional infrared countermeasures may also be retrofitted.
The first operational deployment for the MH-47G was with the army's 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment in Afghanistan, starting in early March 2007.
Another utility helicopter, the UH-60 Black Hawk, is also heavily used in the Central Command area of responsibility, with 337 of the type operating in both Iraq and Afghanistan on any given day.
The army is in the midst of modernising the Black Hawk fleet with the procurement of the new 'Mike' (UH-60M) model. The first unit equipped with the 'Mike' version has just been fielded and there are now about 30 of the type flying in theatre today.
The UH-60M has a more powerful engine, an improved gearbox and better handling features. It also has an enhanced laser warning system and an embedded GPS/inertial navigation system, improving its surviv- ability and situational awareness.
The army's new Light Utility Helicopter (LUH), designated UH-72A Lakota, continues to roll off the production line. By 2015 the service is expected to acquire 345 Lakotas, which are designed by BAE Systems primarily for domestic and humanitarian missions. The army's decision to build the LUH frees up combat utility helicopters such as the Black Hawk for overseas missions.
The army's total LUH fleet is scheduled to be in service by 2015. The LUH replaces Bell UH-1 Hueys, Sikorsky UH-60A medical-evacuation helicopters and some US Army National Guard OH-58A/C Kiowa Warriors. These aircraft are all scheduled for retirement by 2023, according to Colonel Neil Thurgood, the army's utility helicopters project manager.
The challenge that lies ahead for the US Army will be maintaining the existing helicopter fleet while also securing funding for the continued production of upgraded variants - from the CH-47F to the MH-47G, AH-64D and Apache Block III, as well as the UH-60M.
Fixed-wing programmes
As if that challenge were not enough, however, army officials must also set aside funds for fixed-wing aircraft. They are additionally keen to invest in the development of next-generation aircraft - such as JFTL, ARH and new unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) - as well as develop technologies to fill emerging gaps in capability.
Army officials will also need to find some start-up funds for the Aerial Common Sensor (ACS) signals intelligence aircraft. The programme was terminated but never cancelled; it is expected to start up again in 2009 and may once more become a joint programme with the US Navy.
Funding for additional orders of the Alenia Aeronautica C-27J Spartan tactical transport aircraft, which was ordered by both the army and the US Air Force (USAF) under the Joint Cargo Aircraft (JCA) programme, will also need to be made available. The army and USAF have so far ordered 78 C-27Js under a contract signed in June 2007. The two services are ultimately expected to buy at least 145 aircraft.
The army has additionally begun to make serious investments in UAVs, including the Shadow and Raven types in the field today. However, army aviation officials say more research and development money is needed to support the development of UAVs with low signatures, more weapons and reliable jet fuel engines.
Looking to the future, the army is conducting a series of 'capabilities-based assessments' to determine what types of technology are needed to ensure readiness for future conflicts. Two of the assessments - on the topics of aircraft survivability and degraded visual environment - will deal with the pressing problems of hostile fire and brownout in the current wars.
Other assessments, however, address longer-term capability gaps across army aviation. Decisions about filling some of these gaps - including the need for JFTL, for example - are controversial because they involve major investments in expensive and far-reaching technology.
More money than sense?
Today the notional concept for the JFTL is a conventional tilt-rotor aircraft that lifts 30 tons vertically; it would serve as a heavy-lift capability to carry Stryker and FCS vehicles. The army's current plan for JFTL is to establish an experimental flight programme in 2012. The service will spend more than USD40 million in FY08-09 on risk-reduction efforts, including 11 industry contracts and eight government tasks.
However, the JFTL has drawn scrutiny from the US Defense Science Board (DSB) and some military analysts who warn that it poses major technical challenges because of its proposed size. The rotor diameter and size required to provide adequate lift are unprecedented and development of the appropriate rotor technology could be time-consuming and expensive.
Moreover, some analysts have questioned whether that investment would be worth the money, especially when the final JFTL fleet is expected to lift only one FCS brigade behind enemy lines and may still be vulnerable to air-defence systems.
The DSB has argued that JFTL money might be better spent on a lower-cost, lower-risk heavy-lift aircraft that can carry just 20 tons instead of 30 tons.
The DSB's assertion that less ambitious technology may be more practical for longer-term projects is in line with Secretary Gates' reasoning for revamping the Pentagon's procurement system.
In the years ahead, a deciding factor in Pentagon budget battles may be the willingness of services to pursue quick fixes that may not be perfect solutions but are good enough to get the job done.
So far, army aviation appears to have caught on to this approach more quickly than other branches of the US military. However, the future success of army aviation may depend on the willingness of army leaders to resist the temptation to advocate long-term developmental projects in favour of shorter-term investments in helicopter upgrades and new aircraft acquisitions with relatively modest requirements.
Caitlin Harrington is a JDW Staff Reporter based in Washington, DC
