3.7.1. Development potential
Like earlier in the Soviet Union, also in Russia the budgeted state defense materiel orders have formed the main mechanism for financing of military research. In other words, the current crisis in militarily oriented research originated already in 1989 when Gorbachev started to scale down the military sector. There were increases in the budget of 1995, but they were more related to the war in Chechnya than the deepening crisis in military industry. However, in real terms the budget of 1995 was distinctly smaller than that of 1994. The combined share of weapon procurements and military research was 3.2 percent of the GNP, when it the previous year had been 4.5 percent (28).
The simultaneous decline of GNP and the reduction in the share of military expenditure in the national budget have led to a situation, where the real military allocations have decreased 70 % in the time period of 1990 - 1999. (114) Upd 27 March '99
Also, obviously not all money allocated for research does always go where it was originally intended. Very often when the Ministry of Defense is controlling the use of resources, immediate materiel needs pass long-term research plans. The forced diet hits hardest exactly those sectors that are already running low: the applied sciences and science cities.
Alternative sources of income, outside the actual budget, help the situation to a certain extent, but they cover only a minimal share of all the needs. Frustrated at the government's inability to improve the budget situation of 1995, the military-industrial complex held several crisis meetings in spring 1995 and decided to found its own political party (28).
The scientific-technological foundations of Russia have diminished significantly. It can take another generation before the Russian market economy can be established and revived to wealth. During this time, in its modernization programs the Russian military will have to rely on foreign scientific-technical resources much more than it actually would want to (28).
After domestic orders have run out, exports have become an important source of income for the aircraft industry. Actually, Russian companies have become very active in their export efforts and they have abandoned the former habit to offer for sale only older equipment and technology already replaced in domestic use. Now the industry is prepared to sell also the latest modifications, which the Russian defense organizations cannot afford to buy.
The biggest Russian weapon export organization is the state-owned Rosvoorouzhenie, which handles 90 percent of export trade. It withholds 3 - 5-percent share of the value of each export delivery. According to Rosvoorouzhenie statistics, in 1996 Russian weapons exports amounted to $3.4 billion. Military aircraft and related technology made up about 50 percent of all exports (30).
VPK MAPO was the first war materiel manufacturer independent of Rosvoorouzhenie licensed to practice export trade. It was established in 1996 and it brought together the total of 11 materiel companies. For instance the following belong to the group: former Mikoyan MiG aviation scientific complex, Kamov Design Bureau, commercial bank and manufacturers of avionics equipment, aircraft engines and aircraft control systems. The group has more than 100,000 employees (30).
The directors of VPK MAPO and MAPO MiG had quite a dispute when the group was being formed. Aircraft sales had fallen drastically and the Mikoyan Design Bureau and aircraft plant were on a verge of an economic collapse. In other words, VPK MAPO had to take full responsibility for all Mikoyan's debts. The dispute was taken to court, and the final result was that VPK MAPO got the dominant position (31).
In recent years the biggest deals of VPK MAPO have been the sale of 18 MiG-29 fighters to Malaysia in 1995 at the price of $560 million, and the Indian order of 10 MiG-29s and 12 Tunguchka air defense systems amounting to $300 million (30). In 1997 the company planned to manufacture 40 MiG-29s, 12 Ka-50s and several Ka-52 helicopters (31).
The total value of the foreign contracts concluded by the MAPO military industrial complex in 1998 was $300 million. MAPO was supplying three new MiG-29 aircraft to Peru and overhauling 17 other planes which were purchased by the Peruvian Air Force from Belarus. (97) Upd 14 Jan '99
Rostislav Belyakov, the General Designer of the aviation scientific-industrial complex MiG noticed in March 1999 that during the last few years they had lost about 50 % of specialists. Earlier they had 7000 people on the staff, and now fewer than 3000 people. There was no influx of young specialists from higher education institutes. (121) Upd 27 March '99
MiG sold in 1999 six MiG-29 fighters to Bangladesh. The contract of $125 million was said to be the largest contract of the corporation.(150) Upd 11 March 2000
The main rival of VPK MAPO, the Sukhoi Design Bureau and aviation scientific industrial complex, has succeeded in making its fighters established as the primary fighter type in Russian Air Force, earlier Russian Air Defense Force and Naval Air Force. It has also had success on export markets. In 1991 Sukhoi sold 24 Su-27SKs and 2 Su-27UBKs to China at the total price exceeding one billion dollars. The first deliveries were made by June 1992, equipping one regiment of the 3rd Air Division at Wuhu. (32, 75). China signed up for 24 more Su-27SKs and two further Su-27UBKs in 1995, and a third contract was signed in 1996, covering licence production of between 72 and 78 aircraft, at a rate of between ten and twenty per year. China paid a reported $2.5 billion for manufacturing rights, but will not be able to re-export the aircraft it builds.(75)
In addition, Russia's regular trading partner, India, signed in 1996 an agreement about procurement of 40 Su-27 variant Su-30 MKs at the price of $1.8 billion. The first aircraft was delivered in March 1997. India is also making preparations to start license manufacturing of Su-30s (33) and also considers an additional purchase of 10 more Su-30 MKI aircraft. (85)
Vietnam has received an initial batch of six Su-27s for which it reportedly paid $54.6m each compared to Sukhoi`s quoted unit price of $85m. Further aircraft have been delivered since that first batch, with a pair of Su-27UBKs being destroyed before delivery when the An-124 carrying them crashed on take off at Irkutsk on December 6, 1997. (75)
There is a question mark over Syria; the country has variously been reported as having an interest in acquiring 17 Su-27SKs, or having already received that quantity of aircraft. Other potential customers for the aircraft include Algeria, Iran and Libya. In 1989 it was announced that an agreement had been signed to deliver Su-27s to Iraq, but whatever the truth of that rumour, none have been delivered. (75)
"Several dozens" of Su-27UBK aircraft were in 1999 ordered for $1 billion to be delivered to China as a part of Russia`s repayment of its debt to that country.(151) Upd 11 March 2000
Two new weapon exports companies started their operation in August 1997. Promexport specializes in exporting second-hand materiel and Russian Technologies in products of the high-tech weapon industry. However, Rosvoorouzhenie still maintains its clear leading position in Russian weapon exports (55).
Asia has become the most important export area for Russian aircraft industry India and China being the most important target countries. The industry has not succeeded in selling its aircraft types to countries known for their high evaluation standards, which put much emphasis on total life-cycle costs.
Due to the weak state of national economy, domestic purchases have fallen to the minimum. In 1991 the Frontal Aviation procurements diminished by 46 percent and the purchases of bombers and transports by 41 percent. In 1992 the purchases of tactical combat aircraft were only 21 percent of the level of 1991 and the acquisitions of bombers and transport planes 36 percent of 1991 level. In 1993 the acquisition allocations of the Frontal Aviation were further cut by 31 percent and in 1994 by additional 23 percent (19). In 1994 Russia allocated 147 billion Rubles to state acquisitions instead of the planned 2 trillion Rubles (34). In the budget of 1995 the Air Force got only 30 percent of the financing it would have actually needed and in 1996 the share had fallen to 13 percent (34,35). In practice this meant two budget years without any aircraft orders.
Comparing the years 1984 and 1994 shows how dramatic the change has actually been. In the early 1980s the Soviet Union manufactured 400-450 fighters and 100 bombers and transports annually. During 1993 - 1994 the industry produced the total of 23 fighters for the Russian Air Force, Russian Air Defense Force and Naval Air Force. By the end of the year 1994, the manufacturing of Su-25s and MiG-29s for domestic needs had been finished altogether. A few MiG-31s were made for the Air Defense Force, and the annual production rate of Su-27 fighter versions was estimated to be 14 - 16 aircraft. The production of Tu-160s, Tu-142s and Tu-95s had been suspended (19).
On the latter half of the 1990s the air force organizations would need to acquire about a hundred new aircraft a year in order to maintain the strength of fighters and attack aircraft at approximately 3,000 and, at the same time, replace the retiring MiG-23s, MiG-27s and Su-17s and the oldest Su-25s. In the near future, this seems impossible. Thus the fighter and attack air force strength will probably stabilize at around 2,000 - 2,500 aircraft at the turn of the century. The air force has started to consciously reduce the number of aircraft types, weaponry and other equipment in order to improve efficiency and economy (19).
The Russian government accepted a reorganization and conversion program of the war industry on 25.12.1997 and ratified it on 24.6.1998. The basis for reorganization was that when the defense purchases were decreasing a remarkable part of the companies had to start high quality civilian products and at the same time maintain the core production capability for modern weapon systems.
In the beginning of 90s the war industry consisted of 1700 companies and organizations. In 1998 the number was about 1000, located in 72 different areas, and will be in year 2000 about 680.
There were some mistakes made when aviation industry concern Sukhoi and war industry concern MAPO were established, according to deputy minister of economy. Instead of streamlined production process the various companies in the production chain had very different status and capabilities.
The presidential decree orders that only 3,5 % of GNP can be used for defense and that makes the international cooperation and export very important. The State orders are prioritized to keep up the most important technologies but at the same time the small orders make the unit prize extremely high. (73)
Having failed to sell military property domestically the Defense Ministry has started an export effort. At the end of November 1998 Russian Military Transport Aviation began deliveries of MiG-23 fighters to Angola. Four Su-27 fighters plus other material was delivered to Ethiopia between December 10 and 23 valued at $150 million. The Air Force is prepared for the sale of some 600 aircraft including Su-22s, MiG-23s, MiG-27s etc. Such target countries like Syria, India and Yemen are mentioned in addition to Angola and Ethiopia. (98) Upd 14 Jan '99
The share of the Air Force in the military budget was 20 % in 1992; in 1998 it was only 9 %. The share of air force acquisition was 9.4 % in 1996, 3.4 % in 1997, and 1.6 % in 1999. (103) Upd 10 Feb '99
Defense Minister Igor Sergeyev referred to the level of 1999 military expenses planned by the government as "fatal". The fact was that 1999 was planned to be the year of the lowest level of military spending ever; 2.4 % of the GDP, meaning 92.2 billion rubles. The Concept of the State Policy for Military Construction in Russia, confirmed by president Yeltsin, is that the level of spending on national defense must total no less than 3.5 % of GDP, or 133 billion rubles in 1999. The federal budget for the year 1999 stipulated 22 billion rubles in all for the defense orders, from which 11.5 billion rubles were planned on new equipment and 8 billion rubles on research. At the same time, as of November 30, 1998, the state`s debts to the Armed Forces amounted to some 70 billion rubles. Of this sum, the debts to military personnel total 14.4 billion rubles. (89) Upd 14 Jan '99
Prime minister Sergei Kirijenko signed on 17.7.1998 decree 784 of the Ministry of Finance. It contained a list of companies which will maintain the State shares. The Ministry of Economy wanted 67 more companies on the list because otherwise the State could lose its control in all helicopter producing companies except Kamov, and also Tupolev (Tu-160 and Tu-22M), Ilyushin (Il-76), planning bureau Sukhoi, Irkutsk APO (Su-30 and Su-27UB), Ulan-Ude aircraft factory (Su-25), Ljulka-Saturn company (engines for Su-27 variations) and Samara scientific-technological complex (engines for missiles and aircraft). (74)
The number of Russian companies which were authorized to sell domestic arms and military equipment totaled 21 companies in the beginning of 1999. Among them were state enterprises Rosvooruzhenie, Rossiiskye Technologii, and Promexport. The others were 18 arms producing companies: the MiG Moscow aviation production complex, the MAPO military-industrial complex, the Aviaexport foreign trade complex, the Metrovagonmash closed joint-stock company, the Izhmas open joint-stock company, the Appliance-building design bureau, the Rostvertol open joint-stock company, the Ufa motor-building production complex, Nizhny Novgorod`s Gydromash open joint-stock company, the Antci production concern, the Kurganmashzavod open joint-stock company, Arsenyev`s Progress aviation company named after Sazykin, the Murom machine-building plant, the Machine-building scientific-production corporation, the Rubin central design bureau of sea facilities, the Gaz open joint-stock company, the Zvezda scientific-production enterprise, and the Tulamashzavod joint-stock company. (107) Upd 10 Feb '99
In 1999 the planned and approved Air Force research and development programs were financed only by 16% of the necessary level. Since 1996, assignments for research and development fell from 29% to 9% of the entire military budget. (145) Upd 11 March 2000
The aircraft industrial potential of Russia has diminished significantly in recent years. Still, with help of export sales and different subsidies, the industry has managed to keep up high-tech research and application expertise and to continue to develop aviation products meeting international standards. It is evident that, following the international trend, the former extensive pool of manufacturing capacity will develop into significantly more centralized aviation industry, which will still be capable of independent combat aircraft design and manufacturing. Long-term forecasts suggest that in the future only the USA, European consortium consisting of several parties and Russia will belong to this category.
Russia`s 2001 defense budget was $ 7,3 billion, and Air Force chiefs wanted to earmark enough to modernize 80 % of the fleet by 2005. Meanwhile Sukhoi and MiG presented competing designs for a fifth-generation fighter to begin production in 2010. The new 2002 budget approved by the cabinet allotted an extra $ 1,5 billion in defense spending. Recent contracts with China and India pushed Russian arms exports to $ 3,2 in 2001. On the other hand, ââ¬Åthe aircraft are aging before our very eyes,ââ¬Â Air Force Commander Anatoly Kornukov said. ââ¬ÅFor the past 10 years, not a single new aircraft has been added to our front-line air force.ââ¬Â Only 5 % of Russia`s planes are the ââ¬Åmost modernââ¬Â, he noted. There is no fuel at 49 of the nation`s 115 military airports.(160) Upd 28 Nov 2001
3.7.2. Fighters and Attack Aircraft
The Russian Air Force no longer plans new MiG-29 purchases. This means that the MiG-29M program will have to rely mainly on exports and state subsidies to high-tech industries.
The Air Force plans to modernise 150 to 180 MiG-29 fighters, manufactured over the last decade, to a new standard. The program originally called for the first 10 MiG-29SMTs to be in service by year-end with a further 20 to 30 aircraft to be modernised next year. From 2000, 40 fighters were expected to be modernised annually.
24 MiG-29 fighters were planned to be modified during 1999. The modification agreement of 20 aircraft has reportedly been made. (108, 109) Upd 10 Feb '99
However, according to Chief of Armament of the Russian Armed Forces, Col Gen Anatoly Sitnov, as the end of July 1998, no funds had been allocated to the Ministry of Defense. So, the Russian Air Force was only to modernise three MiG-29 fighters to the new MiG-29SMT standard in 1998 (78). However, the first of those was finished only in December 1998. (95) Upd 17 Jan '99
The Su-27 became the primary type of aircraft also in the final phase of the Air Defense Force, even though the MiG-31 was still the dominant type in terms of quantity. Still, there are also plans to introduce the more advanced MiG-31BM, but the possibilities to make an actual order seem slim. The upgrade increases the weapon load from 3 000 kg to 9 000 kg and gives the modified version the capability to carry the new air-to-air missiles and also launch a variety of air-to-ground missiles and bombs like Kh-31P/A, Kh-25MP, Kh-29T/L, Kh-59M, KAB-500 and KAB-1500 (81). The Russian Defense Ministry has signed a contract with the MAPO concern to conduct scientific research and design work to upgrade the MiG-31 interceptor plane (139). Upd 6 Nov '99
The Su-27 became the primary type of aircraft also in the final phase of the Air Defense Force, even though the MiG-31 was still the dominant type in terms of quantity. Still, there are also plans to introduce the more advanced MiG-31BM, but the possibilities to make an actual order seem slim. The upgrade increases the weapon load from 3 000 kg to 9 000 kg and gives the modified version the capability to carry the new air-to-air missiles and also launch a variety of air-to-ground missiles and bombs like Kh-31P/A, Kh-25MP, Kh-29T/L, Kh-59M, KAB-500 and KAB-1500. (81)
A new prototype was rolled out in the beginning of January 1999 at Zhukovski. It was advertised as a multi-functional fighter with six long-range guided missiles and stealth technology characteristics. The first flight was planned in the end of February. There was no information about orders (95). The roll-out was followed by a heated press debate about the airplane`s status and designation. The following interview with Sergei Shalnev, deputy leading designer of item 1/42, told about the situation:
Question: Some MAPO MiG administrators and top brass in the military maintain that an Item 1/42 was displayed in Zhukovsky. Could you please comment on those statements? Answer: It must be a mistake. They exhibited a 1/44 aircraft which had spent many years in the hangar there.
Question: What kind of aircraft is it? A stealth-type fighter or something altogether different?
Answer: What are you talking about? It`s not a fighter at all. Item 1/44 was assembled in order to check out some design concepts and test AL41F engines. It`s a flying laboratory, that`s what it is.
Question: Could you please compare 1/42 and 1/44?
Answer: How?
Question: Well, how different are they?
Answer: Absolutely different. They have different concepts. They do not even look alike, to say nothing of constructional specifics. The 1/42 aircraft was supposed to appear after the tests in the 1/44 laboratory. It is a stealth-type aircraft. It has different wings, different air intakes etc. I cannot tell you a lot because the 1/42 is still a classified project.
Question: Is there a sample, at least?
Answer: No, just a model for certain kinds of work. We couldn`t assemble the whole aircraft due to financial difficulties.
Question: They say the 1/42 will take off in February...
Answer: As far as I know, it is the 1/44 that is prepared for take off. Provided we find the money to install rudders and some other gear. (110) Upd 10 Feb '99
In 1993 the Navy selected the Su-27K as the fighter for the aircraft carrier Admiral of the Fleet Kuznetsov. The Su-27K, which was later renamed Su-33, won the MiG-29K in evaluation competition. Further development of the latter type ended right there, but recently some reports have been heard about reviving the program (61). No significant resources have been invested in further development of the aircraft carrier attack aircraft Su-25K. The units of the aircraft carrier attached to the Northern Naval Fleet consist of a fighter squadron of 26 Su-33s, attack squadron of 8 Su-25s and helicopter squadron of 24 Ka-27s. Former carrier aircraft, Jak-38 VTOL fighters, have been taken from service (19, 94) Upd 17 Jan '99
The aspiration to create a Russian counterpart for American F-22 fighter has been an issue of current interest throughout the 1990s. In 1991 Mikoyan Design Bureau announced that it is working on two new fighter projects. A version corresponding to American ATF fighter was given a project designation, which indicates that the program had been officially launched in the beginning of 1988. Also the Russian Air Force command declared that the aircraft industry is aiming at creating a fighter with optimized stealth characteristics according to air force requirements (19).
In the beginning of 1993, Mikoyan announced that their fifth generation fighter was otherwise at prototype stage, but the test flight program had had to be postponed because of problems found in engine development. The first flight had been scheduled already for 1991, but financial problems in engine production had caused the delay. The project designation was subject 1.42 and the letters MFI referred to multi-role fighter "Mnogofunktsionalny Frontovoi Istrebitel" (19).
The engine manufacturer is Lyulka/Saturn. It announced that its Al-41 engines feature directional radial jet nozzles and that they can produce 250 degrees higher turbine temperature than the Al-35, proposed as the temporary engine and used in Su-35s. The twin-engine aircraft, equipped with two vertical stabilizers, weighs approximately 30 tons. Its stealth characteristics have been improved with both design and radar absorbent finishing materials (19).
Both the aircraft industry and the Air Force have done their best to keep the project alive, but it seems very unlikely that the 1.42 would enter series production (36). Russia will probably try to continue the project at "technology demonstrator" principle (56).
Another new Mikoyan project was the subject 701, in other words, a multi-role long-range interceptor "Mnogofunktsionalny Dalni Perehvatshik" for the Air Defense Force. The 701 with two-man crew was a long delta-wing aircraft without a tail. The air intakes had been placed above the fuselage and the weapons store was built inside the aircraft. Due to lack of money, this project intended as successor to the MiG-31 had to give way for modification endeavors of the MiG-31 (37).
The Nizhniy Novgorod plant has manufactured six MiG-31M prototypes. At least two of them have been handed over to the Russian Air Force test and evaluation airbase Aktyubinsk. There the aircraft has flown interception tests using for instance active/semi-active R-37 missile. In 1994 it was reported that the Air Force had achieved in these tests interception range of 300 kilometers. However, at the moment one of the prototypes stands dismantled in the Zhukovsky test flight center and the other one is supposed to end up as a testbed for new technology (38).
Sukhoi has been developing a cheaper and smaller alternative for Mikoyan's MFI fighter and its S-37 prototype made its first flight in Zhukovsky on September 25, 1997 (59). It is powered by two D-30F6 engines, originally developed for the MiG-31. Later, they will probably be replaced with AL-41F engines, which have horizontal jet flow. The most notable special feature of the S-37 is its reversed swept wing shape (51,77).
Both Mikoyan and Sukhoi have lighter fighter types on their drawing tables. They are designed besides as complements for heavy and expensive MFI or S-37 types, also for the export market. The Mikoyan MFI made its first appearance in the 1980s as a single-engine type 33, but now, after ten-year delay, the factory is considering both single- and double-engine versions. The Sukhoi design is single-engined S-54 probably equipped with Saturn AL-31F power plant (51).
Besides new aircraft types and modifications of planes already in service, Mikoyan is also developing a kind of intermediate type, based on the MiG-29M, but bigger. Bigger size is meant to increase the operation radius and to provide more space for weapon pylons. The first flight is scheduled for 1999 and the type designation is MiG-35 (51).
The short-range fire support aircraft Su-25 was in mid-1980s converted to type Su-25T with new avionics. Its core was the SUV-25TM Voskhod system, which comprises for example opto-electronic fire control system for tracking of moving targets, such as tanks. For night operations the aircraft can use FLIR system placed inside a separate container. When the Soviet Union disintegrated, only 12 planes had been manufactured in Tbilisi, Georgia, but since then, the manufacturing capacity has been moved to Ulan-Ude, Russia.
The latest version of the aircraft, known as the Su-39, was fitted with Kopyo-25 N027 radar. As the primary antitank weapon, the aircraft carries 16 Vikhr missiles. The attack weapons include also Kh-31 AS-17 Krypton and Kh-35 AS-20 Kayak missiles, among others. The first fully equipped version of the type was completed at Ulan-Ude plant in 1997. Three aircraft have been assembled and five more are in different stages of assembly at the factory. The wing tips of the Su-39 can be swung up for possible aircraft carrier operations.
The primary motive for development of the Su-39 has been application of technology suited to nighttime attacks, and it is very unlikely that it ends up in series production. According to an announcement of the Russian Air Force command, a new stealth attack aircraft will be introduced to service after the turn of the century. In certain reports Sukhoi's R&D project Sh-90, i.e. Sturmovik-90, has been mentioned as one such possibility. It has also been suggested that the MiG-AT and Jak-130 attack version could complement near-future attack capacity. Both types as participating in trainer competition (61).
The first decade of the next millennium may be nearing its end before Russian Air Force can launch a more extensive replacement program of its fighter and attack aircraft equipment. As things are, it does not seem very rational that the aircraft industry is continuously bringing out new prototypes and different variations of them. However, at the moment Sukhoi and Mikoyan are in the middle of a crucial battle for the status of the primary manufacturer of future fighters. Both of them are trying to eliminate their last domestic rival at any price, and thus they take immense risks. With help of exports, own financing arrangements and state subsidies both companies are trying to create such a range of aircraft that when the Russian Air Force can again make new purchases, it simply cannot say no to their offer.
In the near future, the aircraft types Su-27, MiG-31 and MiG-29 will make up the primary fighter force of Russia. The attack aircraft are mainly Su-24Ds and Su-25s. In the end of 2000 there were two Su-27MK and one MiG-29SMT modifications ready. Closer details about MiG-29 and Su-27 variants can be found in Appendices 1 and 2. Upd 28 Dec 2000
In December 2003, the first five 15-year old Su-27s to be upgraded to Su-27M configuration at Sukhoi`s plant in Komsomolsk-on-Amur were returned to service. First deliveries of the Su-34s were expected to begin in 2005 and were planned to replace the Su-24 and Tu-22. In 2004 there were some 606 fighter / ground attack Su-24s and Su-25s, 908 MiG-25, MiG-29, Su-27 and MiG-31 fighters and 214 recce MiG-25s. (161) 22 Jan 2005
3.7.3. Bombers
The fact that Long-Range Aviation redirected its forces from inter-continental strategic missions more to the regional conflicts was a natural consequence of both the requirements of the new military doctrine and the changes in quantities of military units and equipment after the collapse of the Soviet Union. It also had considerable problems in settling ownership of its aircraft with the newly independent states, especially Ukraine. Tactical bomber force has been concentrated to the Frontal Aviation and the Navy.
The aircraft types Tu-22M, Tu-95MS and Tu-160 make up the primary bomber equipment. The Tu-16, Tu-22, Tu-95M and Tu-95K supplement them.
Sukhoi won the competition over the successor for the Tu-16 and Tu-22 with its T-60S proposal before its hard rival on bomber sector, Tupolev. The design work began already in the 1970s, was interrupted and revived again. Sukhoi has applied stealth technology in the T-60S structure and the bomber is meant for both tactical and strategic duties, for instance to the interdiction missions. Sukhoi intended to make the first flight at its research center near Novosibirsk, but lack of resources delayed the schedule. Now it seems likely that the program is put off till after the turn of the century (6,39).
The Russian bomber program concentrates on keeping the types Tu-160, Tu-95MS and Tu-22M3 up to date so that it is possible to use precision weapons fitted with conventional warheads with them. The Kh-101 cruise missile is about to become the primary weapon of the Tu-160 and Tu-95MS. Its guidance system based on opto-electronics, digital mapping and TV homing head has been developed to meet the accuracy requirements of conventional warheads (51). The latest of weapon system exercises with its cruise missiles once again underlined the strategic importance of the Long-Range Aviation (57).
The latest decision concerning acquisition of Tu-160s also shows the Russian endeavor to maintain its superpower air force status. Russia and Ukraine have agreed that part of the Ukraine`s oil debt will be compensated by 8 Tu-160 and 3 Tu-95MS long range bombers. Their new address was 22.Air Force Division in Engelsk (140). In addition to that the Russian Ministry of Defense ordered six new Tu-160s from Kazan aircraft manufacturing company KAPO, which belongs to Tupolev group. The other companies belonging to the group are Tupolev research unit, Aviakor aviation plant in Samara, engine factory in Uljanovsk and Tavia assembly unit in Taganrog. Five of the aircraft have already been completed, but only now the Ministry of Defense has confirmed its solvency. The sixth plane was in 1997 in the final stages of assembly in Kazan factory in KAPO. Even though the size of the order was small, Russia still found it necessary for its strategic strike capacity (63). According to the International Institute of Strategic Studies in London, only 66 long-range bombers were operational in summer 1998. They included 60 Tu-95 MS Bear bombers each equipped with six AS-15 missiles and 6 Tu-160 Blackjacks each with 12 AS-15 missiles (70). The number of Blackjacks was now more than doubled. Upd 6 Nov '99
Russian Air Force has tested a new cruise missile with a conventional warhead. It obviously is Kh-555 missile which is developed from the Kh-55, having a range of 2000 - 3000 km. (152) Upd 11 March 2000
The Russian Long-Range Aviation will need a new type of aircraft after the first decade of the next century. The practical work on a new heavy bomber will start in 1999, according to a decision of the Russian Security Counsil. Col Gen Anatoly Kornukov has announced that the aircraft is expected to be introduced after 2010. The new aircraft will replace the heavy Tu-95MS and some Tu-22M3 "Backfire C" bombers. (79)
The older Tu-22M2 Backfire B aircraft will be phased out as the newer Tu-22M3 versions get new avionics and weaponry. These are planned to be modified again into Tu-22M5 version, subsequently renamed the Tu-245. (80) The planned successor is the T-60S in 80-ton weight class (51). The Tu-22M3 Backfire bomber actually is the latest version of Russia`s theater bomber. Russian press reports cite a force level of 134 aircraft, but with as few as 49 operational. Some recent evidence is indicating that Russia may be considering use of the Backfire bombers in a strategic role. The new missile Kh-101 with 5,000 km range is intended for use also on Tu-22M3 which means that the official declaration that the Backfire bombers are not "strategic offensive arms" (declaration associated with the START I treaty) is no more valid. (101) Upd 14 Jan '99
The number of operational strategic bombers was in 1998 according to IISS 1998 Military Balance as follows (80): Upd 6 Nov '99
Tu-22M3 Backfire C 125 (6 Kh-15 missiles internally and 4 externally)
Tu-22M naval 71 (6 Kh-15 missiles internally and 4 externally)
Tu-95MS-6 Bear H 28 (6 Kh-55/65 missiles)
Tu-95MS-16 Bear H 32 (16 Kh-55/65 missiles)
Tu-160 Blackjack 6 (24 Kh-15P or 12 Kh-55/65 missiles)
At the 360th Repair Plant in Ryazan the upgrading program of Tu-95MS bombers was going on in the end of 2000. The airplanes will be armed with the strategic conventional cruise missile KH-101 Raduga, and with its nuclear version KH-102. The missile weighs 2 200 - 2 400 kg and its warhead weighs 400 kg. The max range of KH-101 is 5 000 - 5 500 km. The flight profile altitude can vary from 30 - 70 meters to 6 000 meters with a cruising speed of 190 - 200 meters per second and max speed of 250 - 270 meters per second. The reflecting surface of 0.01 square meter is reported. The missile has an optronic system for the flight trajectory correction and TV terminal guidence system with accuracy of 12 - 20 meters. The upgraded Tu-95MS is able to carry eight KH-101s on external hardpoints. The upgraded Tu-160 will use the same missiles carrying 12 of them in the bomb bay. Also Tu-22M3 planes are included into an upgrading program making it as Tu-22M5. It can carry four KH-101s but its main missile will be the upgraded KH-22. A new version of the KAB-1500 smart bomb weighing 1 500 kg is being designed for bombers of the long-range aviation. (158) Upd 28 Dec 2000
In 2004 there were some 15 Tu-160, 63 Tu-95 and 117 Tu-22 M/MR bombers. (161) 22 Jan 2005
3.7.4. Transport Aircraft
The Transport Aviation suffered the most from the loss of airplanes to the neighboring countries when the Soviet Union collapsed. Most of the new Il-76 transports had been stationed in Ukraine. The new doctrine stressing rapid reaction to regional conflicts made the loss even bigger.
Affecting was also the fact that most of the capacity to manufacture transport aircraft was located outside Russia. For example the factories making Il-76s and An-124s and their engines were in Ukraine and Uzbekistan. For instance the assembly of Il-76s in Tashkent, Uzbekistan came to a halt. Russia tries to remedy the situation with a new light-heavy An-70 transport. It will be manufactured in Antonov plant in Kiev, and thus the parties are currently negotiating about terms of production and purchase that would best serve both partners (19).
The An-70, equipped with four bypass turboprop engines, is primarily meant as replacement for the An-12. Its prototype was destroyed on a test flight when it and the monitoring plane had the mid air collision. The second prototype, originally intended for stationary tests, was put to flying order and the first flight was in April 1997. In spite of the setbacks, the aircraft may have potential for series production since besides Russian Air Force, also the Ukrainian and Kazakhstanian Air Forces have expressed their interest in it (40). The An-70 has been designed to operate from 600 meters long grassy airfields with 30-ton load and 700-kilometer operation range (61).
In case the An-70, later known as UR-NTK, project fails, the Russian Air Force will probably complement its transportation capacity with Tupolev's Tu-330. It was created by attaching the wing of a Tu-204 to a totally new airframe. Equipped with two "shoulder-mounted" jet engines, the aircraft can carry 15-ton load to the range of 900 kilometers. The design is clearly more conventional than that of the An-70 and the aircraft lacks An-70's STOL features.(45)
The Il-76 Candid has been modernized by stretching the fuselage and by introducing new engines. The test flight was made in August 1995. The load carrying capacity of the aircraft is 50 tons. The development program will probably lengthen the Il-76 production phase by ten years; since 1973, 920 examples of the aircraft have been manufactured in different versions. The future plan is to replace the Il-76 with the Il-106 aircraft, in C-17 style (61). Within transportation sector the most successful aircraft in export has been Antonov's An-74 type. Iran has ordered IN 1997 12 An-74s (51).
The basic airlift capacity is provided by the 248 Il-76 transports. The Air Force made a decision to replace the An-24 and An-12 aircraft by order of 164 An-70 transports until year 2018. There are 26 heavy An-124 transports and a couple of dozens of light An-72 aircraft. The total number of transports is approximately 1000. In addition, the Navy has about 100 transport helicopters. (157) Upd 28 Dec 2000
In 2004 there were some 318 aircraft, made up of Il-76 Ms / MDs / MFs, An-12s and An-124 transports. (161) 22 Jan 2005
3.7.5. Support Aircraft and Trainers
The Russian Air Defense Force was the main user organization of AWACS aircraft. The Soviet Union started the AWACS development in the 1960s using Tupolev Tu-126 Moss as testbed for antenna and command post systems. The constructional solution was based on the passenger version Tu-124 of the Tu-95 bomber. The AWACS type in question was in service for 15 years. In mid-1980s it was replaced with Beriev's A-50 adaptation of Iljushin Il-76 MD transport (41).
In the beginning the A-50s, manufactured at Taganrog factory, were operated by the reconnaissance regiment of the 6th Air Army in the Baltics. Later on they were employed for instance in monitoring of Gulf War air operations (41).
When the A-50 was introduced to service in 1984, the computer turned out to be the weak link of its Shmel system. At ranges exceeding 150 kilometers it was unable to process radar signals and to engage targets. A new Shmel 2 system computer solved the problem in the A-50M version. At the normal operation altitude of 8,000 - 10,000 meters, the A-50M can track 50 targets simultaneously. A low-flying fighter can be spotted at the range of 230 kilometers and a big warship at 400 kilometers. The plane has an aircrew of five and 10-strong team of systems operators. The aircraft can command ten interceptors simultaneously and the time of operation is four hours in the patrol area located 1,000 kilometers from the airbase. The time of operation can be lengthened with in-flight refueling (41).
Currently under development is an A-50U equipped with Shmel-M system. It is expected to enter operative service around the year 2000. The improvements include longer surveillance range and bigger number of tracked targets as well as higher resistance to electronic counter-measures. The intention is also to extend the time of operation in target area to six hours (42).
A project corresponding to American Hawkeye-AWACS is the An-71 Madcap aircraft for the Russian and Ukrainian Air Forces. There the dish antenna has been mounted above the vertical stabilizer. The aircraft is a version of the An-72 transport with two by-pass turbofans. For aircraft carrier operations it has been equipped with a third engine, the lift engine of the Jak-38 VTOL. The coherent pulse-doppler radar employs pulse compression, variable repetition frequencies and digital MTI modes (MTI = Moving Target Indicator). Another search and surveillance radar has been placed in the nose section. For signal intelligence purposes there is an UHF system. The number of both flying and system crew is three. The maximum search range of the radar is approximately 350 kilometers. The rotation rate of the antenna is 10 seconds and observation range to fighter targets is 200 kilometers. The radar can track the total of 120 targets. The time of operation is 4.5 hours with one-hour fuel reserve. Two prototypes have flown in Ukraine since mid-1980s, but entry to series production is still uncertain in spite of the interest shown by Russian and Ukrainian Air Forces (41).
The third AWACS project is the Ka-31 helicopter for aircraft carrier use. It has been developed from the Ka-29 helicopter and two prototypes have been serving on aircraft carrier Admiral of the Fleet Kuznetsov. The biggest problem has been how to integrate the radar to the other systems of the helicopter and to the aircraft carrier systems. The rotation of the disk-shaped radar antenna under the helicopter fuselage has also caused stability problems. On auto pilot the helicopter vibrates violently and it has proved practically impossible to fly the helicopter without the auto pilot.
Usually Russian AWACS radar systems are developed by NIIP Vega in Moscow, in other words Moskovsky Nautshno-Issledovatelsky Institut Priborostrojeniya. However, the OKO system - the eye system - for the Ka-31 is developed by NIIRT, in other words Nautshno-Issledovatelsky Institut Radiotehniky in Nizhnyi Novgorod. The rotation rate of the 6 m x 1 m antenna is 10 seconds, and altitude scanning is electonic (42).
The importance of AWACS aircraft in Russian air control has increased especially because of the gaps in surveillance systems in the directions of the Caspian Sea and the Baltic area. The total AWACS strength is 16 aircraft.
Most of the reconnaissance and ECM aircraft are in air force units. The Navy has less than hundred reconnaissance and ECM aircraft. Most of the aircraft in this category are older fighters, attack aircraft, bombers or transports. The Su-24 Fencers represent the most modern equipment. The Su-24 MR Fencer E is a tactical reconnaissance version, which carries a navigation radar and side-looking SLAR in its nose radome. On both sides of the nose there are large dielectric panels. The gun has been removed and the cooling system air intake duct on top of the fuselage has been enlarged. Between the nose wheel and the fuselage pylon there is room for cameras and infrared scanner. The aircraft has a data link system for real time transmissions of intelligence data. Electronic surveillance equipment is housed in pods mounted on wing pylons (43).
The Su-24MP Fencer F has been specially designed for tactical countermeasures. In its nose it carries navigation radar as well as dielectric panels of variable sizes on both sides of the nose. The ECM disk antenna has been mounted under the nose radome and the "hockey stick antennas" on both sides of the air intake openings. Electronic surveillance equipment and chaff dispensers have been placed in external wing pods (43). The Russian Air Force has 80 and the Navy 20 Su-24s specialized in reconnaissance and ECM missions. The future plans include modernization of special mission equipment mainly with modifications based on the Su-27 airframe.
Beriev has developed a new seaplane prototype Be-103 for maritime reconnaissance tasks. It was destroyed in an training flight for the Zhukovsky Air Show on August 18, 1997 on its 28th flight, only five weeks after its first flight. Series production is scheduled to begin towards the end of 1998 and the first deliveries should start in the year 1999. The Russian Frontier Guard has ordered 20 aircraft, when it in fact would need the total of 200 planes (51).
Under development are also twin-engine reconnaissance aircraft types Il-114P, S-80PT and Il-114FK for frontier guard patrolling duties. In addition to reconnaissance equipment, the Sukhoi S-80PT can be equipped with quite heavy assault weaponry (61). The total number of reconnaissance and ECM aircraft is approximately 850.
The Tu-142 Bear F represents besides the heaviest also the most numerous anti-submarine aircraft. It has been developed from the Tu-95 bomber by stretching the fuselage forward of the wings by 1.75 meters, increasing the wing curvature, adding double-slotted flaps, enlarging rudder surface and fuel tankage, and equipping the landing gear with bigger low pressure tires. The design has aimed at better operability from smaller coastal airfields and longer time of operation on sea.
In the original production versions the glazed nose was retained. The "Short Horn" radar and search and surveillance radar were housed in a big radome in the front section of the bomb bay. Behind it there was room for anti-submarine torpedoes and depth charges and, rearmost, were the sonobuoys. The only self-protection weaponry was in tail turret. Subsequent modifications included additional 0.25-meter stretching of the front fuselage, nose-mounted radar, MAD (Magnetic Anomaly Detector) boom over the vertical stabilizer and additional room for sonobuoys. The latest improvements include a small ECM radome in the nose and a fairing for sensors, obviously also FLIR, undernose (43). It is estimated that the Tu-142 Bear Fs will be in service for 20 more years (61).
Russia is also equipping commercial Tu-204 airliners as replacements for smaller anti-submarine planes, Be-12 Mail and Il-38 May. The intention is to use them also in maritime reconnaissance and indication of naval targets. In these tasks they will replace the Tu-16R, Tu-22R and Tu-95R aircraft. The Tu-204 version was selected to naval operations in the year 1995 (61).
The full number of anti-submarine aircraft is about 150 and there are also couple of hundred of helicopters for close-range interception.
The in-flight refueling tankers modified from the Tu-16 bombers represent the older generation of flight refueling equipment. In the Tu-16N the fuel tanks have been built inside the bomb bay and the fuel pipe with the drogue are reeled out from inside the fuselage. They are mainly used for the Tu-22 bombers. In the Tu-16Z version the fuel pipe is reeled out from the right wingtip and it is mainly used with Tu-16 versions.
The Il-78 Midas, developed from the Il-76 transport and entered in operational service in 1987, represents newer flight refueling equipment. The cargo bay has been converted to fuel tanks and the aircraft has the UPAZ flight refuelling system with three refueling pods - one under each wing and a third one on the left side of the tail section - equipped with impact pressure turbine. The refuelling speed is 232 - 319 kts (430 - 590 km/h) and the fuel transfer rate is 2 500 litres ( 550 Imp gal) per minute.
When operating at maximum take-off weight 190 tonnes it can transfer 40 000 - 45 000 litres (8 800 - 9 900 Imp gal) of fuel at a distance of 2 500 km (1 345 nm).
A development of the Il-78, the Il-78M, has a strengthened wing structure and increased maximum take-off weight of 210 tonnes. The Il-78M is capable of supplying 75 150 lit (16 530 Imp gal) of fuel to receivers at ranges up to 1 800 km (968 nm) from base or 40 000 - 43 800 lit (8 800 - 9 640 Imp gal) up to 4000 km (2 152 nm).
Twenty of the total of 48 flight refueling tankers are the type Il-78 Midas and they belong to the 230th Air Tanker Regiment at Engels Air Base near Saratov. (76)
In the Warsaw Pact era Czechoslovakia was the designated producer of trainers. The Czech L-29 Delfin and its successor L-39 Albatross formed the basic equipment of Soviet flying schools. The L-39 is currently the primary trainer type of Russian Air Force organizations, and its total quantity is around 1,000 planes. During 1996 the Russian Air Force tasked the Myasischev Design Bureau with re-equipping hundreds of L-39 Albatross trainers. This was due to the fact that dissolution of the Warsaw Pact broke former trade structures thus causing lack of spare parts for the trainers and lapse of warranties of certain critical parts, such as the ejector seat. The Myasischev production plant in Zhukovsky will replace certain Czech parts, such as avionics and power generators, with Russian products.
Mikoyan's MiG-AT and Yakovlev's Jak-130 compete over the position as the successor to the Albatross. The Russian Air Force has ordered 10 examples of each in order to make training evaluations.
The MiG-AT, designation Type 821 with French engines and Type 823 with Russian engines, is currently in production at the MAPO factory in Moscow. The test flight program of the first prototype, equipped with French engines and avionics, was very much completed by the end of the year 1997.
Yakovlev has been developing its aircraft in cooperation with Italian Aermacchi. The fact that only one prototype has been available for both flight and static testing has delayed the program. The prototype Jak-130D also differs greatly from the version entering series production.
It can be assumed that the state will grant subsidies for both aircraft types. At first the Russian Air Force lowered its estimate about the size of the order from original 800-1,000 to about 500 aircraft. Then it announced that it orders the first hundred aircraft before the year 2009 and the next hundred after that. Thus both of the manufacturers are actively aiming at export market and the state will evidently support their efforts (61).
In 2004 there were some 20 Il-78 / Il- 78 M tankers, 20 A-50 / A-50U AWACS aircraft, 60 electronic countermeasures Mi-8s and 908 trainers,made up of the front line types as well as Aero L-39s. (161) 22 Jan 2005
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Like earlier in the Soviet Union, also in Russia the budgeted state defense materiel orders have formed the main mechanism for financing of military research. In other words, the current crisis in militarily oriented research originated already in 1989 when Gorbachev started to scale down the military sector. There were increases in the budget of 1995, but they were more related to the war in Chechnya than the deepening crisis in military industry. However, in real terms the budget of 1995 was distinctly smaller than that of 1994. The combined share of weapon procurements and military research was 3.2 percent of the GNP, when it the previous year had been 4.5 percent (28).
The simultaneous decline of GNP and the reduction in the share of military expenditure in the national budget have led to a situation, where the real military allocations have decreased 70 % in the time period of 1990 - 1999. (114) Upd 27 March '99
Also, obviously not all money allocated for research does always go where it was originally intended. Very often when the Ministry of Defense is controlling the use of resources, immediate materiel needs pass long-term research plans. The forced diet hits hardest exactly those sectors that are already running low: the applied sciences and science cities.
Alternative sources of income, outside the actual budget, help the situation to a certain extent, but they cover only a minimal share of all the needs. Frustrated at the government's inability to improve the budget situation of 1995, the military-industrial complex held several crisis meetings in spring 1995 and decided to found its own political party (28).
The scientific-technological foundations of Russia have diminished significantly. It can take another generation before the Russian market economy can be established and revived to wealth. During this time, in its modernization programs the Russian military will have to rely on foreign scientific-technical resources much more than it actually would want to (28).
After domestic orders have run out, exports have become an important source of income for the aircraft industry. Actually, Russian companies have become very active in their export efforts and they have abandoned the former habit to offer for sale only older equipment and technology already replaced in domestic use. Now the industry is prepared to sell also the latest modifications, which the Russian defense organizations cannot afford to buy.
The biggest Russian weapon export organization is the state-owned Rosvoorouzhenie, which handles 90 percent of export trade. It withholds 3 - 5-percent share of the value of each export delivery. According to Rosvoorouzhenie statistics, in 1996 Russian weapons exports amounted to $3.4 billion. Military aircraft and related technology made up about 50 percent of all exports (30).
VPK MAPO was the first war materiel manufacturer independent of Rosvoorouzhenie licensed to practice export trade. It was established in 1996 and it brought together the total of 11 materiel companies. For instance the following belong to the group: former Mikoyan MiG aviation scientific complex, Kamov Design Bureau, commercial bank and manufacturers of avionics equipment, aircraft engines and aircraft control systems. The group has more than 100,000 employees (30).
The directors of VPK MAPO and MAPO MiG had quite a dispute when the group was being formed. Aircraft sales had fallen drastically and the Mikoyan Design Bureau and aircraft plant were on a verge of an economic collapse. In other words, VPK MAPO had to take full responsibility for all Mikoyan's debts. The dispute was taken to court, and the final result was that VPK MAPO got the dominant position (31).
In recent years the biggest deals of VPK MAPO have been the sale of 18 MiG-29 fighters to Malaysia in 1995 at the price of $560 million, and the Indian order of 10 MiG-29s and 12 Tunguchka air defense systems amounting to $300 million (30). In 1997 the company planned to manufacture 40 MiG-29s, 12 Ka-50s and several Ka-52 helicopters (31).
The total value of the foreign contracts concluded by the MAPO military industrial complex in 1998 was $300 million. MAPO was supplying three new MiG-29 aircraft to Peru and overhauling 17 other planes which were purchased by the Peruvian Air Force from Belarus. (97) Upd 14 Jan '99
Rostislav Belyakov, the General Designer of the aviation scientific-industrial complex MiG noticed in March 1999 that during the last few years they had lost about 50 % of specialists. Earlier they had 7000 people on the staff, and now fewer than 3000 people. There was no influx of young specialists from higher education institutes. (121) Upd 27 March '99
MiG sold in 1999 six MiG-29 fighters to Bangladesh. The contract of $125 million was said to be the largest contract of the corporation.(150) Upd 11 March 2000
The main rival of VPK MAPO, the Sukhoi Design Bureau and aviation scientific industrial complex, has succeeded in making its fighters established as the primary fighter type in Russian Air Force, earlier Russian Air Defense Force and Naval Air Force. It has also had success on export markets. In 1991 Sukhoi sold 24 Su-27SKs and 2 Su-27UBKs to China at the total price exceeding one billion dollars. The first deliveries were made by June 1992, equipping one regiment of the 3rd Air Division at Wuhu. (32, 75). China signed up for 24 more Su-27SKs and two further Su-27UBKs in 1995, and a third contract was signed in 1996, covering licence production of between 72 and 78 aircraft, at a rate of between ten and twenty per year. China paid a reported $2.5 billion for manufacturing rights, but will not be able to re-export the aircraft it builds.(75)
In addition, Russia's regular trading partner, India, signed in 1996 an agreement about procurement of 40 Su-27 variant Su-30 MKs at the price of $1.8 billion. The first aircraft was delivered in March 1997. India is also making preparations to start license manufacturing of Su-30s (33) and also considers an additional purchase of 10 more Su-30 MKI aircraft. (85)
Vietnam has received an initial batch of six Su-27s for which it reportedly paid $54.6m each compared to Sukhoi`s quoted unit price of $85m. Further aircraft have been delivered since that first batch, with a pair of Su-27UBKs being destroyed before delivery when the An-124 carrying them crashed on take off at Irkutsk on December 6, 1997. (75)
There is a question mark over Syria; the country has variously been reported as having an interest in acquiring 17 Su-27SKs, or having already received that quantity of aircraft. Other potential customers for the aircraft include Algeria, Iran and Libya. In 1989 it was announced that an agreement had been signed to deliver Su-27s to Iraq, but whatever the truth of that rumour, none have been delivered. (75)
"Several dozens" of Su-27UBK aircraft were in 1999 ordered for $1 billion to be delivered to China as a part of Russia`s repayment of its debt to that country.(151) Upd 11 March 2000
Two new weapon exports companies started their operation in August 1997. Promexport specializes in exporting second-hand materiel and Russian Technologies in products of the high-tech weapon industry. However, Rosvoorouzhenie still maintains its clear leading position in Russian weapon exports (55).
Asia has become the most important export area for Russian aircraft industry India and China being the most important target countries. The industry has not succeeded in selling its aircraft types to countries known for their high evaluation standards, which put much emphasis on total life-cycle costs.
Due to the weak state of national economy, domestic purchases have fallen to the minimum. In 1991 the Frontal Aviation procurements diminished by 46 percent and the purchases of bombers and transports by 41 percent. In 1992 the purchases of tactical combat aircraft were only 21 percent of the level of 1991 and the acquisitions of bombers and transport planes 36 percent of 1991 level. In 1993 the acquisition allocations of the Frontal Aviation were further cut by 31 percent and in 1994 by additional 23 percent (19). In 1994 Russia allocated 147 billion Rubles to state acquisitions instead of the planned 2 trillion Rubles (34). In the budget of 1995 the Air Force got only 30 percent of the financing it would have actually needed and in 1996 the share had fallen to 13 percent (34,35). In practice this meant two budget years without any aircraft orders.
Comparing the years 1984 and 1994 shows how dramatic the change has actually been. In the early 1980s the Soviet Union manufactured 400-450 fighters and 100 bombers and transports annually. During 1993 - 1994 the industry produced the total of 23 fighters for the Russian Air Force, Russian Air Defense Force and Naval Air Force. By the end of the year 1994, the manufacturing of Su-25s and MiG-29s for domestic needs had been finished altogether. A few MiG-31s were made for the Air Defense Force, and the annual production rate of Su-27 fighter versions was estimated to be 14 - 16 aircraft. The production of Tu-160s, Tu-142s and Tu-95s had been suspended (19).
On the latter half of the 1990s the air force organizations would need to acquire about a hundred new aircraft a year in order to maintain the strength of fighters and attack aircraft at approximately 3,000 and, at the same time, replace the retiring MiG-23s, MiG-27s and Su-17s and the oldest Su-25s. In the near future, this seems impossible. Thus the fighter and attack air force strength will probably stabilize at around 2,000 - 2,500 aircraft at the turn of the century. The air force has started to consciously reduce the number of aircraft types, weaponry and other equipment in order to improve efficiency and economy (19).
The Russian government accepted a reorganization and conversion program of the war industry on 25.12.1997 and ratified it on 24.6.1998. The basis for reorganization was that when the defense purchases were decreasing a remarkable part of the companies had to start high quality civilian products and at the same time maintain the core production capability for modern weapon systems.
In the beginning of 90s the war industry consisted of 1700 companies and organizations. In 1998 the number was about 1000, located in 72 different areas, and will be in year 2000 about 680.
There were some mistakes made when aviation industry concern Sukhoi and war industry concern MAPO were established, according to deputy minister of economy. Instead of streamlined production process the various companies in the production chain had very different status and capabilities.
The presidential decree orders that only 3,5 % of GNP can be used for defense and that makes the international cooperation and export very important. The State orders are prioritized to keep up the most important technologies but at the same time the small orders make the unit prize extremely high. (73)
Having failed to sell military property domestically the Defense Ministry has started an export effort. At the end of November 1998 Russian Military Transport Aviation began deliveries of MiG-23 fighters to Angola. Four Su-27 fighters plus other material was delivered to Ethiopia between December 10 and 23 valued at $150 million. The Air Force is prepared for the sale of some 600 aircraft including Su-22s, MiG-23s, MiG-27s etc. Such target countries like Syria, India and Yemen are mentioned in addition to Angola and Ethiopia. (98) Upd 14 Jan '99
The share of the Air Force in the military budget was 20 % in 1992; in 1998 it was only 9 %. The share of air force acquisition was 9.4 % in 1996, 3.4 % in 1997, and 1.6 % in 1999. (103) Upd 10 Feb '99
Defense Minister Igor Sergeyev referred to the level of 1999 military expenses planned by the government as "fatal". The fact was that 1999 was planned to be the year of the lowest level of military spending ever; 2.4 % of the GDP, meaning 92.2 billion rubles. The Concept of the State Policy for Military Construction in Russia, confirmed by president Yeltsin, is that the level of spending on national defense must total no less than 3.5 % of GDP, or 133 billion rubles in 1999. The federal budget for the year 1999 stipulated 22 billion rubles in all for the defense orders, from which 11.5 billion rubles were planned on new equipment and 8 billion rubles on research. At the same time, as of November 30, 1998, the state`s debts to the Armed Forces amounted to some 70 billion rubles. Of this sum, the debts to military personnel total 14.4 billion rubles. (89) Upd 14 Jan '99
Prime minister Sergei Kirijenko signed on 17.7.1998 decree 784 of the Ministry of Finance. It contained a list of companies which will maintain the State shares. The Ministry of Economy wanted 67 more companies on the list because otherwise the State could lose its control in all helicopter producing companies except Kamov, and also Tupolev (Tu-160 and Tu-22M), Ilyushin (Il-76), planning bureau Sukhoi, Irkutsk APO (Su-30 and Su-27UB), Ulan-Ude aircraft factory (Su-25), Ljulka-Saturn company (engines for Su-27 variations) and Samara scientific-technological complex (engines for missiles and aircraft). (74)
The number of Russian companies which were authorized to sell domestic arms and military equipment totaled 21 companies in the beginning of 1999. Among them were state enterprises Rosvooruzhenie, Rossiiskye Technologii, and Promexport. The others were 18 arms producing companies: the MiG Moscow aviation production complex, the MAPO military-industrial complex, the Aviaexport foreign trade complex, the Metrovagonmash closed joint-stock company, the Izhmas open joint-stock company, the Appliance-building design bureau, the Rostvertol open joint-stock company, the Ufa motor-building production complex, Nizhny Novgorod`s Gydromash open joint-stock company, the Antci production concern, the Kurganmashzavod open joint-stock company, Arsenyev`s Progress aviation company named after Sazykin, the Murom machine-building plant, the Machine-building scientific-production corporation, the Rubin central design bureau of sea facilities, the Gaz open joint-stock company, the Zvezda scientific-production enterprise, and the Tulamashzavod joint-stock company. (107) Upd 10 Feb '99
In 1999 the planned and approved Air Force research and development programs were financed only by 16% of the necessary level. Since 1996, assignments for research and development fell from 29% to 9% of the entire military budget. (145) Upd 11 March 2000
The aircraft industrial potential of Russia has diminished significantly in recent years. Still, with help of export sales and different subsidies, the industry has managed to keep up high-tech research and application expertise and to continue to develop aviation products meeting international standards. It is evident that, following the international trend, the former extensive pool of manufacturing capacity will develop into significantly more centralized aviation industry, which will still be capable of independent combat aircraft design and manufacturing. Long-term forecasts suggest that in the future only the USA, European consortium consisting of several parties and Russia will belong to this category.
Russia`s 2001 defense budget was $ 7,3 billion, and Air Force chiefs wanted to earmark enough to modernize 80 % of the fleet by 2005. Meanwhile Sukhoi and MiG presented competing designs for a fifth-generation fighter to begin production in 2010. The new 2002 budget approved by the cabinet allotted an extra $ 1,5 billion in defense spending. Recent contracts with China and India pushed Russian arms exports to $ 3,2 in 2001. On the other hand, ââ¬Åthe aircraft are aging before our very eyes,ââ¬Â Air Force Commander Anatoly Kornukov said. ââ¬ÅFor the past 10 years, not a single new aircraft has been added to our front-line air force.ââ¬Â Only 5 % of Russia`s planes are the ââ¬Åmost modernââ¬Â, he noted. There is no fuel at 49 of the nation`s 115 military airports.(160) Upd 28 Nov 2001
3.7.2. Fighters and Attack Aircraft
The Russian Air Force no longer plans new MiG-29 purchases. This means that the MiG-29M program will have to rely mainly on exports and state subsidies to high-tech industries.
The Air Force plans to modernise 150 to 180 MiG-29 fighters, manufactured over the last decade, to a new standard. The program originally called for the first 10 MiG-29SMTs to be in service by year-end with a further 20 to 30 aircraft to be modernised next year. From 2000, 40 fighters were expected to be modernised annually.
24 MiG-29 fighters were planned to be modified during 1999. The modification agreement of 20 aircraft has reportedly been made. (108, 109) Upd 10 Feb '99
However, according to Chief of Armament of the Russian Armed Forces, Col Gen Anatoly Sitnov, as the end of July 1998, no funds had been allocated to the Ministry of Defense. So, the Russian Air Force was only to modernise three MiG-29 fighters to the new MiG-29SMT standard in 1998 (78). However, the first of those was finished only in December 1998. (95) Upd 17 Jan '99
The Su-27 became the primary type of aircraft also in the final phase of the Air Defense Force, even though the MiG-31 was still the dominant type in terms of quantity. Still, there are also plans to introduce the more advanced MiG-31BM, but the possibilities to make an actual order seem slim. The upgrade increases the weapon load from 3 000 kg to 9 000 kg and gives the modified version the capability to carry the new air-to-air missiles and also launch a variety of air-to-ground missiles and bombs like Kh-31P/A, Kh-25MP, Kh-29T/L, Kh-59M, KAB-500 and KAB-1500 (81). The Russian Defense Ministry has signed a contract with the MAPO concern to conduct scientific research and design work to upgrade the MiG-31 interceptor plane (139). Upd 6 Nov '99
The Su-27 became the primary type of aircraft also in the final phase of the Air Defense Force, even though the MiG-31 was still the dominant type in terms of quantity. Still, there are also plans to introduce the more advanced MiG-31BM, but the possibilities to make an actual order seem slim. The upgrade increases the weapon load from 3 000 kg to 9 000 kg and gives the modified version the capability to carry the new air-to-air missiles and also launch a variety of air-to-ground missiles and bombs like Kh-31P/A, Kh-25MP, Kh-29T/L, Kh-59M, KAB-500 and KAB-1500. (81)
A new prototype was rolled out in the beginning of January 1999 at Zhukovski. It was advertised as a multi-functional fighter with six long-range guided missiles and stealth technology characteristics. The first flight was planned in the end of February. There was no information about orders (95). The roll-out was followed by a heated press debate about the airplane`s status and designation. The following interview with Sergei Shalnev, deputy leading designer of item 1/42, told about the situation:
Question: Some MAPO MiG administrators and top brass in the military maintain that an Item 1/42 was displayed in Zhukovsky. Could you please comment on those statements? Answer: It must be a mistake. They exhibited a 1/44 aircraft which had spent many years in the hangar there.
Question: What kind of aircraft is it? A stealth-type fighter or something altogether different?
Answer: What are you talking about? It`s not a fighter at all. Item 1/44 was assembled in order to check out some design concepts and test AL41F engines. It`s a flying laboratory, that`s what it is.
Question: Could you please compare 1/42 and 1/44?
Answer: How?
Question: Well, how different are they?
Answer: Absolutely different. They have different concepts. They do not even look alike, to say nothing of constructional specifics. The 1/42 aircraft was supposed to appear after the tests in the 1/44 laboratory. It is a stealth-type aircraft. It has different wings, different air intakes etc. I cannot tell you a lot because the 1/42 is still a classified project.
Question: Is there a sample, at least?
Answer: No, just a model for certain kinds of work. We couldn`t assemble the whole aircraft due to financial difficulties.
Question: They say the 1/42 will take off in February...
Answer: As far as I know, it is the 1/44 that is prepared for take off. Provided we find the money to install rudders and some other gear. (110) Upd 10 Feb '99
In 1993 the Navy selected the Su-27K as the fighter for the aircraft carrier Admiral of the Fleet Kuznetsov. The Su-27K, which was later renamed Su-33, won the MiG-29K in evaluation competition. Further development of the latter type ended right there, but recently some reports have been heard about reviving the program (61). No significant resources have been invested in further development of the aircraft carrier attack aircraft Su-25K. The units of the aircraft carrier attached to the Northern Naval Fleet consist of a fighter squadron of 26 Su-33s, attack squadron of 8 Su-25s and helicopter squadron of 24 Ka-27s. Former carrier aircraft, Jak-38 VTOL fighters, have been taken from service (19, 94) Upd 17 Jan '99
The aspiration to create a Russian counterpart for American F-22 fighter has been an issue of current interest throughout the 1990s. In 1991 Mikoyan Design Bureau announced that it is working on two new fighter projects. A version corresponding to American ATF fighter was given a project designation, which indicates that the program had been officially launched in the beginning of 1988. Also the Russian Air Force command declared that the aircraft industry is aiming at creating a fighter with optimized stealth characteristics according to air force requirements (19).
In the beginning of 1993, Mikoyan announced that their fifth generation fighter was otherwise at prototype stage, but the test flight program had had to be postponed because of problems found in engine development. The first flight had been scheduled already for 1991, but financial problems in engine production had caused the delay. The project designation was subject 1.42 and the letters MFI referred to multi-role fighter "Mnogofunktsionalny Frontovoi Istrebitel" (19).
The engine manufacturer is Lyulka/Saturn. It announced that its Al-41 engines feature directional radial jet nozzles and that they can produce 250 degrees higher turbine temperature than the Al-35, proposed as the temporary engine and used in Su-35s. The twin-engine aircraft, equipped with two vertical stabilizers, weighs approximately 30 tons. Its stealth characteristics have been improved with both design and radar absorbent finishing materials (19).
Both the aircraft industry and the Air Force have done their best to keep the project alive, but it seems very unlikely that the 1.42 would enter series production (36). Russia will probably try to continue the project at "technology demonstrator" principle (56).
Another new Mikoyan project was the subject 701, in other words, a multi-role long-range interceptor "Mnogofunktsionalny Dalni Perehvatshik" for the Air Defense Force. The 701 with two-man crew was a long delta-wing aircraft without a tail. The air intakes had been placed above the fuselage and the weapons store was built inside the aircraft. Due to lack of money, this project intended as successor to the MiG-31 had to give way for modification endeavors of the MiG-31 (37).
The Nizhniy Novgorod plant has manufactured six MiG-31M prototypes. At least two of them have been handed over to the Russian Air Force test and evaluation airbase Aktyubinsk. There the aircraft has flown interception tests using for instance active/semi-active R-37 missile. In 1994 it was reported that the Air Force had achieved in these tests interception range of 300 kilometers. However, at the moment one of the prototypes stands dismantled in the Zhukovsky test flight center and the other one is supposed to end up as a testbed for new technology (38).
Sukhoi has been developing a cheaper and smaller alternative for Mikoyan's MFI fighter and its S-37 prototype made its first flight in Zhukovsky on September 25, 1997 (59). It is powered by two D-30F6 engines, originally developed for the MiG-31. Later, they will probably be replaced with AL-41F engines, which have horizontal jet flow. The most notable special feature of the S-37 is its reversed swept wing shape (51,77).
Both Mikoyan and Sukhoi have lighter fighter types on their drawing tables. They are designed besides as complements for heavy and expensive MFI or S-37 types, also for the export market. The Mikoyan MFI made its first appearance in the 1980s as a single-engine type 33, but now, after ten-year delay, the factory is considering both single- and double-engine versions. The Sukhoi design is single-engined S-54 probably equipped with Saturn AL-31F power plant (51).
Besides new aircraft types and modifications of planes already in service, Mikoyan is also developing a kind of intermediate type, based on the MiG-29M, but bigger. Bigger size is meant to increase the operation radius and to provide more space for weapon pylons. The first flight is scheduled for 1999 and the type designation is MiG-35 (51).
The short-range fire support aircraft Su-25 was in mid-1980s converted to type Su-25T with new avionics. Its core was the SUV-25TM Voskhod system, which comprises for example opto-electronic fire control system for tracking of moving targets, such as tanks. For night operations the aircraft can use FLIR system placed inside a separate container. When the Soviet Union disintegrated, only 12 planes had been manufactured in Tbilisi, Georgia, but since then, the manufacturing capacity has been moved to Ulan-Ude, Russia.
The latest version of the aircraft, known as the Su-39, was fitted with Kopyo-25 N027 radar. As the primary antitank weapon, the aircraft carries 16 Vikhr missiles. The attack weapons include also Kh-31 AS-17 Krypton and Kh-35 AS-20 Kayak missiles, among others. The first fully equipped version of the type was completed at Ulan-Ude plant in 1997. Three aircraft have been assembled and five more are in different stages of assembly at the factory. The wing tips of the Su-39 can be swung up for possible aircraft carrier operations.
The primary motive for development of the Su-39 has been application of technology suited to nighttime attacks, and it is very unlikely that it ends up in series production. According to an announcement of the Russian Air Force command, a new stealth attack aircraft will be introduced to service after the turn of the century. In certain reports Sukhoi's R&D project Sh-90, i.e. Sturmovik-90, has been mentioned as one such possibility. It has also been suggested that the MiG-AT and Jak-130 attack version could complement near-future attack capacity. Both types as participating in trainer competition (61).
The first decade of the next millennium may be nearing its end before Russian Air Force can launch a more extensive replacement program of its fighter and attack aircraft equipment. As things are, it does not seem very rational that the aircraft industry is continuously bringing out new prototypes and different variations of them. However, at the moment Sukhoi and Mikoyan are in the middle of a crucial battle for the status of the primary manufacturer of future fighters. Both of them are trying to eliminate their last domestic rival at any price, and thus they take immense risks. With help of exports, own financing arrangements and state subsidies both companies are trying to create such a range of aircraft that when the Russian Air Force can again make new purchases, it simply cannot say no to their offer.
In the near future, the aircraft types Su-27, MiG-31 and MiG-29 will make up the primary fighter force of Russia. The attack aircraft are mainly Su-24Ds and Su-25s. In the end of 2000 there were two Su-27MK and one MiG-29SMT modifications ready. Closer details about MiG-29 and Su-27 variants can be found in Appendices 1 and 2. Upd 28 Dec 2000
In December 2003, the first five 15-year old Su-27s to be upgraded to Su-27M configuration at Sukhoi`s plant in Komsomolsk-on-Amur were returned to service. First deliveries of the Su-34s were expected to begin in 2005 and were planned to replace the Su-24 and Tu-22. In 2004 there were some 606 fighter / ground attack Su-24s and Su-25s, 908 MiG-25, MiG-29, Su-27 and MiG-31 fighters and 214 recce MiG-25s. (161) 22 Jan 2005
3.7.3. Bombers
The fact that Long-Range Aviation redirected its forces from inter-continental strategic missions more to the regional conflicts was a natural consequence of both the requirements of the new military doctrine and the changes in quantities of military units and equipment after the collapse of the Soviet Union. It also had considerable problems in settling ownership of its aircraft with the newly independent states, especially Ukraine. Tactical bomber force has been concentrated to the Frontal Aviation and the Navy.
The aircraft types Tu-22M, Tu-95MS and Tu-160 make up the primary bomber equipment. The Tu-16, Tu-22, Tu-95M and Tu-95K supplement them.
Sukhoi won the competition over the successor for the Tu-16 and Tu-22 with its T-60S proposal before its hard rival on bomber sector, Tupolev. The design work began already in the 1970s, was interrupted and revived again. Sukhoi has applied stealth technology in the T-60S structure and the bomber is meant for both tactical and strategic duties, for instance to the interdiction missions. Sukhoi intended to make the first flight at its research center near Novosibirsk, but lack of resources delayed the schedule. Now it seems likely that the program is put off till after the turn of the century (6,39).
The Russian bomber program concentrates on keeping the types Tu-160, Tu-95MS and Tu-22M3 up to date so that it is possible to use precision weapons fitted with conventional warheads with them. The Kh-101 cruise missile is about to become the primary weapon of the Tu-160 and Tu-95MS. Its guidance system based on opto-electronics, digital mapping and TV homing head has been developed to meet the accuracy requirements of conventional warheads (51). The latest of weapon system exercises with its cruise missiles once again underlined the strategic importance of the Long-Range Aviation (57).
The latest decision concerning acquisition of Tu-160s also shows the Russian endeavor to maintain its superpower air force status. Russia and Ukraine have agreed that part of the Ukraine`s oil debt will be compensated by 8 Tu-160 and 3 Tu-95MS long range bombers. Their new address was 22.Air Force Division in Engelsk (140). In addition to that the Russian Ministry of Defense ordered six new Tu-160s from Kazan aircraft manufacturing company KAPO, which belongs to Tupolev group. The other companies belonging to the group are Tupolev research unit, Aviakor aviation plant in Samara, engine factory in Uljanovsk and Tavia assembly unit in Taganrog. Five of the aircraft have already been completed, but only now the Ministry of Defense has confirmed its solvency. The sixth plane was in 1997 in the final stages of assembly in Kazan factory in KAPO. Even though the size of the order was small, Russia still found it necessary for its strategic strike capacity (63). According to the International Institute of Strategic Studies in London, only 66 long-range bombers were operational in summer 1998. They included 60 Tu-95 MS Bear bombers each equipped with six AS-15 missiles and 6 Tu-160 Blackjacks each with 12 AS-15 missiles (70). The number of Blackjacks was now more than doubled. Upd 6 Nov '99
Russian Air Force has tested a new cruise missile with a conventional warhead. It obviously is Kh-555 missile which is developed from the Kh-55, having a range of 2000 - 3000 km. (152) Upd 11 March 2000
The Russian Long-Range Aviation will need a new type of aircraft after the first decade of the next century. The practical work on a new heavy bomber will start in 1999, according to a decision of the Russian Security Counsil. Col Gen Anatoly Kornukov has announced that the aircraft is expected to be introduced after 2010. The new aircraft will replace the heavy Tu-95MS and some Tu-22M3 "Backfire C" bombers. (79)
The older Tu-22M2 Backfire B aircraft will be phased out as the newer Tu-22M3 versions get new avionics and weaponry. These are planned to be modified again into Tu-22M5 version, subsequently renamed the Tu-245. (80) The planned successor is the T-60S in 80-ton weight class (51). The Tu-22M3 Backfire bomber actually is the latest version of Russia`s theater bomber. Russian press reports cite a force level of 134 aircraft, but with as few as 49 operational. Some recent evidence is indicating that Russia may be considering use of the Backfire bombers in a strategic role. The new missile Kh-101 with 5,000 km range is intended for use also on Tu-22M3 which means that the official declaration that the Backfire bombers are not "strategic offensive arms" (declaration associated with the START I treaty) is no more valid. (101) Upd 14 Jan '99
The number of operational strategic bombers was in 1998 according to IISS 1998 Military Balance as follows (80): Upd 6 Nov '99
Tu-22M3 Backfire C 125 (6 Kh-15 missiles internally and 4 externally)
Tu-22M naval 71 (6 Kh-15 missiles internally and 4 externally)
Tu-95MS-6 Bear H 28 (6 Kh-55/65 missiles)
Tu-95MS-16 Bear H 32 (16 Kh-55/65 missiles)
Tu-160 Blackjack 6 (24 Kh-15P or 12 Kh-55/65 missiles)
At the 360th Repair Plant in Ryazan the upgrading program of Tu-95MS bombers was going on in the end of 2000. The airplanes will be armed with the strategic conventional cruise missile KH-101 Raduga, and with its nuclear version KH-102. The missile weighs 2 200 - 2 400 kg and its warhead weighs 400 kg. The max range of KH-101 is 5 000 - 5 500 km. The flight profile altitude can vary from 30 - 70 meters to 6 000 meters with a cruising speed of 190 - 200 meters per second and max speed of 250 - 270 meters per second. The reflecting surface of 0.01 square meter is reported. The missile has an optronic system for the flight trajectory correction and TV terminal guidence system with accuracy of 12 - 20 meters. The upgraded Tu-95MS is able to carry eight KH-101s on external hardpoints. The upgraded Tu-160 will use the same missiles carrying 12 of them in the bomb bay. Also Tu-22M3 planes are included into an upgrading program making it as Tu-22M5. It can carry four KH-101s but its main missile will be the upgraded KH-22. A new version of the KAB-1500 smart bomb weighing 1 500 kg is being designed for bombers of the long-range aviation. (158) Upd 28 Dec 2000
In 2004 there were some 15 Tu-160, 63 Tu-95 and 117 Tu-22 M/MR bombers. (161) 22 Jan 2005
3.7.4. Transport Aircraft
The Transport Aviation suffered the most from the loss of airplanes to the neighboring countries when the Soviet Union collapsed. Most of the new Il-76 transports had been stationed in Ukraine. The new doctrine stressing rapid reaction to regional conflicts made the loss even bigger.
Affecting was also the fact that most of the capacity to manufacture transport aircraft was located outside Russia. For example the factories making Il-76s and An-124s and their engines were in Ukraine and Uzbekistan. For instance the assembly of Il-76s in Tashkent, Uzbekistan came to a halt. Russia tries to remedy the situation with a new light-heavy An-70 transport. It will be manufactured in Antonov plant in Kiev, and thus the parties are currently negotiating about terms of production and purchase that would best serve both partners (19).
The An-70, equipped with four bypass turboprop engines, is primarily meant as replacement for the An-12. Its prototype was destroyed on a test flight when it and the monitoring plane had the mid air collision. The second prototype, originally intended for stationary tests, was put to flying order and the first flight was in April 1997. In spite of the setbacks, the aircraft may have potential for series production since besides Russian Air Force, also the Ukrainian and Kazakhstanian Air Forces have expressed their interest in it (40). The An-70 has been designed to operate from 600 meters long grassy airfields with 30-ton load and 700-kilometer operation range (61).
In case the An-70, later known as UR-NTK, project fails, the Russian Air Force will probably complement its transportation capacity with Tupolev's Tu-330. It was created by attaching the wing of a Tu-204 to a totally new airframe. Equipped with two "shoulder-mounted" jet engines, the aircraft can carry 15-ton load to the range of 900 kilometers. The design is clearly more conventional than that of the An-70 and the aircraft lacks An-70's STOL features.(45)
The Il-76 Candid has been modernized by stretching the fuselage and by introducing new engines. The test flight was made in August 1995. The load carrying capacity of the aircraft is 50 tons. The development program will probably lengthen the Il-76 production phase by ten years; since 1973, 920 examples of the aircraft have been manufactured in different versions. The future plan is to replace the Il-76 with the Il-106 aircraft, in C-17 style (61). Within transportation sector the most successful aircraft in export has been Antonov's An-74 type. Iran has ordered IN 1997 12 An-74s (51).
The basic airlift capacity is provided by the 248 Il-76 transports. The Air Force made a decision to replace the An-24 and An-12 aircraft by order of 164 An-70 transports until year 2018. There are 26 heavy An-124 transports and a couple of dozens of light An-72 aircraft. The total number of transports is approximately 1000. In addition, the Navy has about 100 transport helicopters. (157) Upd 28 Dec 2000
In 2004 there were some 318 aircraft, made up of Il-76 Ms / MDs / MFs, An-12s and An-124 transports. (161) 22 Jan 2005
3.7.5. Support Aircraft and Trainers
The Russian Air Defense Force was the main user organization of AWACS aircraft. The Soviet Union started the AWACS development in the 1960s using Tupolev Tu-126 Moss as testbed for antenna and command post systems. The constructional solution was based on the passenger version Tu-124 of the Tu-95 bomber. The AWACS type in question was in service for 15 years. In mid-1980s it was replaced with Beriev's A-50 adaptation of Iljushin Il-76 MD transport (41).
In the beginning the A-50s, manufactured at Taganrog factory, were operated by the reconnaissance regiment of the 6th Air Army in the Baltics. Later on they were employed for instance in monitoring of Gulf War air operations (41).
When the A-50 was introduced to service in 1984, the computer turned out to be the weak link of its Shmel system. At ranges exceeding 150 kilometers it was unable to process radar signals and to engage targets. A new Shmel 2 system computer solved the problem in the A-50M version. At the normal operation altitude of 8,000 - 10,000 meters, the A-50M can track 50 targets simultaneously. A low-flying fighter can be spotted at the range of 230 kilometers and a big warship at 400 kilometers. The plane has an aircrew of five and 10-strong team of systems operators. The aircraft can command ten interceptors simultaneously and the time of operation is four hours in the patrol area located 1,000 kilometers from the airbase. The time of operation can be lengthened with in-flight refueling (41).
Currently under development is an A-50U equipped with Shmel-M system. It is expected to enter operative service around the year 2000. The improvements include longer surveillance range and bigger number of tracked targets as well as higher resistance to electronic counter-measures. The intention is also to extend the time of operation in target area to six hours (42).
A project corresponding to American Hawkeye-AWACS is the An-71 Madcap aircraft for the Russian and Ukrainian Air Forces. There the dish antenna has been mounted above the vertical stabilizer. The aircraft is a version of the An-72 transport with two by-pass turbofans. For aircraft carrier operations it has been equipped with a third engine, the lift engine of the Jak-38 VTOL. The coherent pulse-doppler radar employs pulse compression, variable repetition frequencies and digital MTI modes (MTI = Moving Target Indicator). Another search and surveillance radar has been placed in the nose section. For signal intelligence purposes there is an UHF system. The number of both flying and system crew is three. The maximum search range of the radar is approximately 350 kilometers. The rotation rate of the antenna is 10 seconds and observation range to fighter targets is 200 kilometers. The radar can track the total of 120 targets. The time of operation is 4.5 hours with one-hour fuel reserve. Two prototypes have flown in Ukraine since mid-1980s, but entry to series production is still uncertain in spite of the interest shown by Russian and Ukrainian Air Forces (41).
The third AWACS project is the Ka-31 helicopter for aircraft carrier use. It has been developed from the Ka-29 helicopter and two prototypes have been serving on aircraft carrier Admiral of the Fleet Kuznetsov. The biggest problem has been how to integrate the radar to the other systems of the helicopter and to the aircraft carrier systems. The rotation of the disk-shaped radar antenna under the helicopter fuselage has also caused stability problems. On auto pilot the helicopter vibrates violently and it has proved practically impossible to fly the helicopter without the auto pilot.
Usually Russian AWACS radar systems are developed by NIIP Vega in Moscow, in other words Moskovsky Nautshno-Issledovatelsky Institut Priborostrojeniya. However, the OKO system - the eye system - for the Ka-31 is developed by NIIRT, in other words Nautshno-Issledovatelsky Institut Radiotehniky in Nizhnyi Novgorod. The rotation rate of the 6 m x 1 m antenna is 10 seconds, and altitude scanning is electonic (42).
The importance of AWACS aircraft in Russian air control has increased especially because of the gaps in surveillance systems in the directions of the Caspian Sea and the Baltic area. The total AWACS strength is 16 aircraft.
Most of the reconnaissance and ECM aircraft are in air force units. The Navy has less than hundred reconnaissance and ECM aircraft. Most of the aircraft in this category are older fighters, attack aircraft, bombers or transports. The Su-24 Fencers represent the most modern equipment. The Su-24 MR Fencer E is a tactical reconnaissance version, which carries a navigation radar and side-looking SLAR in its nose radome. On both sides of the nose there are large dielectric panels. The gun has been removed and the cooling system air intake duct on top of the fuselage has been enlarged. Between the nose wheel and the fuselage pylon there is room for cameras and infrared scanner. The aircraft has a data link system for real time transmissions of intelligence data. Electronic surveillance equipment is housed in pods mounted on wing pylons (43).
The Su-24MP Fencer F has been specially designed for tactical countermeasures. In its nose it carries navigation radar as well as dielectric panels of variable sizes on both sides of the nose. The ECM disk antenna has been mounted under the nose radome and the "hockey stick antennas" on both sides of the air intake openings. Electronic surveillance equipment and chaff dispensers have been placed in external wing pods (43). The Russian Air Force has 80 and the Navy 20 Su-24s specialized in reconnaissance and ECM missions. The future plans include modernization of special mission equipment mainly with modifications based on the Su-27 airframe.
Beriev has developed a new seaplane prototype Be-103 for maritime reconnaissance tasks. It was destroyed in an training flight for the Zhukovsky Air Show on August 18, 1997 on its 28th flight, only five weeks after its first flight. Series production is scheduled to begin towards the end of 1998 and the first deliveries should start in the year 1999. The Russian Frontier Guard has ordered 20 aircraft, when it in fact would need the total of 200 planes (51).
Under development are also twin-engine reconnaissance aircraft types Il-114P, S-80PT and Il-114FK for frontier guard patrolling duties. In addition to reconnaissance equipment, the Sukhoi S-80PT can be equipped with quite heavy assault weaponry (61). The total number of reconnaissance and ECM aircraft is approximately 850.
The Tu-142 Bear F represents besides the heaviest also the most numerous anti-submarine aircraft. It has been developed from the Tu-95 bomber by stretching the fuselage forward of the wings by 1.75 meters, increasing the wing curvature, adding double-slotted flaps, enlarging rudder surface and fuel tankage, and equipping the landing gear with bigger low pressure tires. The design has aimed at better operability from smaller coastal airfields and longer time of operation on sea.
In the original production versions the glazed nose was retained. The "Short Horn" radar and search and surveillance radar were housed in a big radome in the front section of the bomb bay. Behind it there was room for anti-submarine torpedoes and depth charges and, rearmost, were the sonobuoys. The only self-protection weaponry was in tail turret. Subsequent modifications included additional 0.25-meter stretching of the front fuselage, nose-mounted radar, MAD (Magnetic Anomaly Detector) boom over the vertical stabilizer and additional room for sonobuoys. The latest improvements include a small ECM radome in the nose and a fairing for sensors, obviously also FLIR, undernose (43). It is estimated that the Tu-142 Bear Fs will be in service for 20 more years (61).
Russia is also equipping commercial Tu-204 airliners as replacements for smaller anti-submarine planes, Be-12 Mail and Il-38 May. The intention is to use them also in maritime reconnaissance and indication of naval targets. In these tasks they will replace the Tu-16R, Tu-22R and Tu-95R aircraft. The Tu-204 version was selected to naval operations in the year 1995 (61).
The full number of anti-submarine aircraft is about 150 and there are also couple of hundred of helicopters for close-range interception.
The in-flight refueling tankers modified from the Tu-16 bombers represent the older generation of flight refueling equipment. In the Tu-16N the fuel tanks have been built inside the bomb bay and the fuel pipe with the drogue are reeled out from inside the fuselage. They are mainly used for the Tu-22 bombers. In the Tu-16Z version the fuel pipe is reeled out from the right wingtip and it is mainly used with Tu-16 versions.
The Il-78 Midas, developed from the Il-76 transport and entered in operational service in 1987, represents newer flight refueling equipment. The cargo bay has been converted to fuel tanks and the aircraft has the UPAZ flight refuelling system with three refueling pods - one under each wing and a third one on the left side of the tail section - equipped with impact pressure turbine. The refuelling speed is 232 - 319 kts (430 - 590 km/h) and the fuel transfer rate is 2 500 litres ( 550 Imp gal) per minute.
When operating at maximum take-off weight 190 tonnes it can transfer 40 000 - 45 000 litres (8 800 - 9 900 Imp gal) of fuel at a distance of 2 500 km (1 345 nm).
A development of the Il-78, the Il-78M, has a strengthened wing structure and increased maximum take-off weight of 210 tonnes. The Il-78M is capable of supplying 75 150 lit (16 530 Imp gal) of fuel to receivers at ranges up to 1 800 km (968 nm) from base or 40 000 - 43 800 lit (8 800 - 9 640 Imp gal) up to 4000 km (2 152 nm).
Twenty of the total of 48 flight refueling tankers are the type Il-78 Midas and they belong to the 230th Air Tanker Regiment at Engels Air Base near Saratov. (76)
In the Warsaw Pact era Czechoslovakia was the designated producer of trainers. The Czech L-29 Delfin and its successor L-39 Albatross formed the basic equipment of Soviet flying schools. The L-39 is currently the primary trainer type of Russian Air Force organizations, and its total quantity is around 1,000 planes. During 1996 the Russian Air Force tasked the Myasischev Design Bureau with re-equipping hundreds of L-39 Albatross trainers. This was due to the fact that dissolution of the Warsaw Pact broke former trade structures thus causing lack of spare parts for the trainers and lapse of warranties of certain critical parts, such as the ejector seat. The Myasischev production plant in Zhukovsky will replace certain Czech parts, such as avionics and power generators, with Russian products.
Mikoyan's MiG-AT and Yakovlev's Jak-130 compete over the position as the successor to the Albatross. The Russian Air Force has ordered 10 examples of each in order to make training evaluations.
The MiG-AT, designation Type 821 with French engines and Type 823 with Russian engines, is currently in production at the MAPO factory in Moscow. The test flight program of the first prototype, equipped with French engines and avionics, was very much completed by the end of the year 1997.
Yakovlev has been developing its aircraft in cooperation with Italian Aermacchi. The fact that only one prototype has been available for both flight and static testing has delayed the program. The prototype Jak-130D also differs greatly from the version entering series production.
It can be assumed that the state will grant subsidies for both aircraft types. At first the Russian Air Force lowered its estimate about the size of the order from original 800-1,000 to about 500 aircraft. Then it announced that it orders the first hundred aircraft before the year 2009 and the next hundred after that. Thus both of the manufacturers are actively aiming at export market and the state will evidently support their efforts (61).
In 2004 there were some 20 Il-78 / Il- 78 M tankers, 20 A-50 / A-50U AWACS aircraft, 60 electronic countermeasures Mi-8s and 908 trainers,made up of the front line types as well as Aero L-39s. (161) 22 Jan 2005
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