PAKISTAN'S CONTRIBUTION TO UN PEACEKEEPINGMaria Kiani *
Introduction
On the basis of its firm belief in the purposes and principles of the United Nations (UN) Charter, Pakistan has actively participated in UN peacekeeping efforts in different parts of the world, in one of the most visible and constructive activities of the UN. It is the largest contributor to the UN peacekeeping personnel in the world. Since 1962, Pakistan has participated in 28 missions. Today, amongst the 100 personnel-contributing countries, Pakistan ranks highest, by currently making a contribution of 8544 personnel (troop and police) to UN missions in Africa, Asia and Europe. 80 Pakistani peacekeepers have perished in their efforts to maintain peace in the world. In view of the active peacekeeping role that Pakistan has played, this paper traces the altruistic motivations and national interest compulsions that propel Pakistan toward active participation in peacekeeping operations and analyses the nature of the contributions it has made so far.
The UN Charter promises to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war.1 Although the Charter makes no explicit mention of peacekeeping as a specific UN activity, the UN Security Council (UNSC) was invested with the power to take collective action under Article 24 of the UN Charter, which states that in order to ensure prompt and effective action by the UN the primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security lies with the UNSC.2
As a young nation in 1947, Pakistans commitment to the principles of the UN provided the rationale and doctrinal basis for peacekeeping. No less a person than the founder of the country, Quaid-e-Azam, Mohammed Ali Jinnah directed the fledgling nation's foreign policy towards multilateralism, in pursuit of peace and international security by saying:
our foreign policy is one of friendliness and good will towards all nations of the world. We believe in the principle of honesty and fair play in national and international dealings and are prepared to make our utmost contribution to the promotion of peace and prosperity among nations of the world. Pakistan will never be found lacking in extending its material and moral support to the oppressed and depressed people of the world an in upholding the principles of the UN Charter.
Pakistans support for the UNs role as an arbiter and custodian of international peace and security has been constant. In 1949, Pakistan became the recipient of UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP), which was one of the earliest and has been longest-running peacekeeping mission of the UN. Thus, Pakistan early on recognised the value and importance of peacekeeping missions. UNMOGIP was deployed to supervise the ceasefire agreed to between India and Pakistan in the State of Jammu and Kashmir under the UN auspices. Regarding UNMOGIPs role, Pakistans Foreign Secretary, Riaz Khokar, stated that Pakistan attaches great importance to both the symbolic value and substantive contribution of this mission.3
Political, structural and economic weakness plagued the young nation from the onset and Pakistans defence forces remained rudimentary. Peacekeeping is a costly exercise which requires well-trained soldiers with appropriate equipment. Pakistans initial peacekeeping contributions began in the wake of generous American military and economic aid. Between 1954 and 1965, the US provided Pakistan with US$630 million in direct-grant assistance and more than US$670 million in concessional sales of defence equipment and defence-support assistance.4 The impact on the military of this new relationship was far-reaching. Aside from gains in material assets, the Pakistan army adopted the latest concepts in military organisation and thinking with enthusiasm.5 Strengthened with new capabilities and technologies, and cognisant of Indias 6000 infantry participation in UN peacekeeping mission in 1953 during the Korean War, Pakistan took its first steps in the peacekeeping arena during the military rule of Field Marshal Ayub Khan in the 1960s by participating in the UN Operation in the Congo (ONUC, 1960-1964). This was followed by a contribution of 1500 infantry contingent to the UN Security Force in West Guinea (West Irian) (UNSF) in 1962 and participation in an observer mission in the UN Yemen Observation Mission (UNYOM) in 1964.
However, it was not until 25 years later, in 1989, that Pakistan once again contributed 20 military observers, to the UN transition Assistance Group in Namibia (UNTAG). The hiatus was due to Pakistans preoccupation with the destabilising events taking place on its eastern and western borders. In the 25 year gap, Pakistan became the recipient of two UN peacekeeping missions. Following the Indo-Pak war in September 1965, the UN India-Pakistan Mission (UNIPOM) was established to supervise the ceasefire along the India-Pakistan border, barring the State of Jammu and Kashmir for which UNMOGIP already existed, to ensure the withdrawal of all armed personnel to the positions held by them before August 5, 1965. After the withdrawal of the troops by India and Pakistan had been completed, UNIPOM was terminated.6 This was followed by Pakistan hosting UN Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan and Pakistan (UNGOMAP) in 1988, after the Soviet defeat in Afghanistan. UNGOMAP was set up to oversee the implementation of the Geneva Accords; withdrawal of Soviet forces and voluntary return of Afghan refugees.7
The prevailing post-Cold War geo-strategic realities compelled Pakistan to actively re-enter the peacekeeping arena. In the absence of a Soviet threat, the strategic value of Afghanistan and Pakistan in the post-Cold War world plummeted for the US, the reigning sole superpower. On October 1, 1990, the US suspended all military assistance and fresh economic aid to Pakistan under the Pressler Amendment8 and the very texts of Islam and jihad, which had provided the requisite impetus to the Afghan resistance, became an anathema to the US and the Western world. Internationally, Pakistan became increasingly isolated and misunderstood as it became subsumed in the verbiage over terrorism and the countrys international standing waned. Meanwhile, during this period, the UN intensified its attempts to serve as an effective instrument to reduce and perhaps prevent violent conflict within the international system, which led to an increase in its peacekeeping activities.9 The conventional foreign policy instruments of military force, trade and diplomacy, are not the only ones available to a state for enhancing influence at international level.10 In the prevalent international political context in which Pakistan found itself, peacekeeping provided an avenue to enhance the country's image and stature; manifest its unfaltering commitment to the UN issues of peace and security, and to humanitarian causes. Over the years, a constructive peacekeeping role has brought Pakistan wide recognition and international visibility, enhancing its multilateral and bilateral ties, which help to positively reflect Pakistans foreign policy issues and goals.
The military-operational benefits gained by participation in UN peacekeeping missions further motivated Pakistan to seek the role of an active peacekeeping nation. Currently, Pakistan (8544 personnel) ranks highest among the top five contributors11 to UN missions, followed by Bangladesh (7163), Nigeria (3570), Ghana (3341) and India (2934), all of whom are developing nations which need to maintain their large standing armies at optimal levels to ensure operational readiness.12 A UN peacekeeping mission is a complex endeavour in which multiple national forces of varying experiences and expertise cooperate and coordinate to achieve the given mandate. A total of 100 countries are contributing more than 58,756 personnel as of July 2004. Participation in a complex multinational UN mission provides Pakistans forces with an opportunity to be exposed to operational procedures of other forces; learn new techniques of planning; logistics and communications skills; command and control structures; methods of coordination and use state of the art weaponry and machinery. This military training and exposure has proved to be invaluable to the Pakistan Army. President General Pervez Musharraf in an interview said; we would like to contribute as many troops as possible anywhere in the world.13
In order to motivate troops to serve in a foreign country under risky and volatile conditions a financial incentive is essential. According to the Department of Peacekeeping (DPKO) at the UN, countries volunteering uniformed personnel to peacekeeping operations are reimbursed by the UN at a flat rate of a little over $1,000 per soldier per month. In addition, peacekeeping soldiers are paid by their own governments according to their own national rank and salary scale. The UN also reimburses countries for equipment.14 A rough estimate of the total sum that accrue to Pakistan forces by serving in numerous UN peacekeeping missions show that the present serving 8544 Pakistani personnel earn over a total of approximately $ US 8,544,000 (or Rs. 461,376,000) per month (without the inclusion of national service charges, national remuneration of soldiers). The economic gains benefit the peacekeepers as well as the country on the whole.
Pakistan's Peacekeeping Role
Over the years Pakistan's peacekeeping contribution record has been impressive. Since 1960 it has participated in over 28 missions and today singly contributes 14.5% of the global UN peacekeeping operations (see Appendix A). This contribution has been recognised by the global community. UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan, on a visit to Pakistan, in 2001 praised Pakistans role by saying;
your soldiers have made the ultimate sacrifice in the service of world peace, and the United Nations. I salute this record of global idealism because I believe that it reflects a determination among the Pakistani people to serve the world.15
Since Pakistan has participated in over 28 missions it is not possible to examine them all in this study, however missions which have impacted on Pakistans scope and quality of peacekeeping and have been significant in altering Pakistans standing in the international scene are briefly discussed.
UN Peacekeeping is in constant evolution. In generational terms, earlier peacekeeping activities of observing, verifying ceasefires and acting as neutral buffers between two antagonist parties is classified as first generation or classical peacekeeping. Pakistan participated in three such operations in the Congo, (ONUC, 1960), West New Guinea (UNSF, 1962), Yemen (UNYOM, 1964).
In the post-Cold War period, a global debate surfaced about centrality of the UN in the international security system and its peacekeeping activities changed extensively in response to the demands put on it. Second-generation peacekeeping began in the post-Cold War transitional period, as multifunctional operations, launched to bring about a negotiated settlement of complex conflicts, as well as to facilitate peaceful transition of the political processes through elections in the presence of UN peacekeepers in recipient countries.16
Pakistan participated in a number of these second-generation peacekeeping operations namely: UN Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG, 1989), UN Angola Verification Mission (UNAVEM, 1989-1997). Pakistani peacekeepers became involved in multidimensional activities such as: monitoring accords and settlements; disarmament and demobilisation of combatants; verifying that parties to the conflict respect human rights commitments; bringing about reforms needed to tackle the root causes of the civil war; establishing a new policing system and monitoring and conducting free and fair elections.17
After the Gulf War in 1991, Kuwait had turned into a battlefield infested with lethal mines, huge stockpiles of ammunition and explosives, Pakistan under the UN Iraq- Kuwait Observation Mission participated in the land reclamation and the clearance of landmines in an area of over 3000 square kilometres.
Pakistans notable contribution in this phase was to the UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC, 1992). The mandate of UNTAC was to ensure the withdrawal of all foreign forces, and the supervision of ceasefire, disarmament and demobilisation of Cambodias warring factions. Pakistan contributed a contingent and military observers to form part of a force constituting personnel from over 32 countries. The UNTAC Force Commander, Lt. General J. M. Sanderson, appreciating Pakistans active role remarked that, the Pakistani contingent showed professionalism, patience, determination and compassion, which indeed are the hallmark of an effective peacekeeping forces.18
Along with the expanded role and responsibilities of the second-generation peacekeeping missions came third-generation missions that concentrated largely on enforcement operations under Chapter VII of the UN Charter. Unlike the traditional interstate territorial conflicts, which earlier generations of peacekeeping had dealt with, third-generation peacekeeping evolved in response to complex internal dynamics of domestic conflicts. The UN peacekeeping forces had to respond to complex emergencies which arose out of primordial and ethnic tensions, collapse of the economic and state infrastructure, which in turn resulted in humanitarian disasters, such as genocide, ethnic-cleansing and mass displacement of people as was the case in the early 1990s in Somalia, Bosnia and Rwanda.19
In these cases, the UN was compelled to act and intervene on humanitarian grounds, without the clear consent of the parties involved in the conflict. This radically altered the threats faced by the peacekeepers and added new dimensions to their roles and responsibilities, which greatly strained the UN both politically and financially. The established principles of peacekeeping roles such as consent; neutrality; impartiality and use of minimal force only in self-defence, all became hotly contested issues. Some case studies suffice to show the complexities the UN peacekeeping forces have faced in the decades of the 1990s, and how Pakistani peacekeeping forces have dealt with such situations.
Somalia: UN Operation in Somalia UNOSOM I, II; 1991-1995
Somalia highlights complexities and risks faced by third generation peacekeeping. Pakistan's role in it has been contested, yet it has also established Pakistani troops as reliable forces who, despite great human costs, fulfilled the mandate given to them and completed the mission successfully. The high-risk complexities of intra-state conflicts such as in Somalia underline the extraordinary demands placed on UN peacekeepers who having to work in a climate of continuing armed conflict, increasingly face the risk of lethal arms in the hands of warring guerrilla factions with little respect for UN principles and safety of peacekeepers.
Pakistans involvement in Somalia proceeded through three stages: UNOSOM I, a humanitarian assistance mission; UNOSOM II, a peace enforcement mission for disarmament and nation-building and joint operations with the US-Quick Reaction Force involving active combat.
After the ouster of long-time dictator, Siad Barre, from Mogadishu in January 1991, factional clan fighting for power erupted in Somalia, leading to lawlessness and famine throughout the country. The civil war that followed Barres ouster resulted in 300,000 deaths, one million refugees and five million people threatened by hunger and disease.20 In 1992, leaders of warring faction signed a ceasefire agreement, which included provisions to allow a UN monitoring mission into Somalia to oversee arrangements for providing humanitarian assistance under the UN Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM I).
Pakistan initially contributed one infantry battalion of the 7 Frontier Force to UNOSOM I, which was given the task of securing the sea and airports; escorting food convoys and ensuring smooth distribution of relief supplies; recover unauthorised arms; provide medical aid, rehabilitate people and reconstruct infrastructure.21
In the deteriorating security conditions, armed banditry and militia infighting continued and UNOSOM I was unable to mitigate the suffering and trauma of the populace. This led the UNSC to invoke Chapter VII of the Charter, under which a multinational military force of willing member states called the Unified Task Force (UNITAF, 1992) was set up to provide a secure environment for humanitarian relief operations.22 Over 37,000 troops drawn from over two-dozen countries were inducted into UNITAF, also known as Operation Restore Hope. It was led and commanded by the US. Though the presence of UNITAF led to an improvement in the security situation and delivery of aid, a secure environment still could not be established and violence continued unabated. In March 1993, after all the parties engaged in the conflict signed the Addis Abbaba Accords, which calleda cessation of violence and reconstruction of Somalia, the UNSC in Resolution 814 authorised the establishment of UNOSOM II. Resolution 814 was significant in several ways:
The UNSC mandated the first ever UN-directed peacekeeping operation under the Chapter VII enforcement provisions of the Charter, including the requirement for UNOSOM II to disarm the Somali clans.
It explicitly endorsed the objective of rehabilitating the political institutions and economy of a member state.
It called for building a secure environment throughout the country, including the northern region that had declared its independence.
UNOSOM II was to take over from the US-led UNITAF.23 Pakistan continued to support UNOSOM II by steadily contributing a substantial number of soldiers. Pakistani troops which were the main operative contingent in the war-ravaged part of Mogadishu, controlled by the Farah Aideed faction, were ordered by the UN Force headquarters to carry out an inspection of the weapon storage sites of Farah Aideed, to whom the date and time of the inspection had been relayed in advance. However, on June 5, 1993, when Pakistani inspectors went to inspect the storage sites they came under attack and were ambushed by Aideed's followers who used children and woman as human shields. In the exchange of fire,24 Pakistani's were killed. The June 5, tragedy is one of the UN peacekeepings biggest debacles. The Italian force was criticised for the delay in providing cover for the Pakistani troops during the ambush. The Italian contingent, despite being under UN command, had waited for instructions from Rome before helping out the Pakistani troops.24
Thenceforth, Pakistan began to work closely with the US deployed Quick Reaction Force,25 in its pursuit of Aideed and seeking justice26 for the death of the UN peacekeepers. In effect, the US forces and Pakistani peacekeepers became embroiled in open warfare with Farah Aideed. This culminated into October 3, 1993 incident in which 75 US Rangers were surrounded in the Olympic Hotel and had to be rescued by Pakistani and Malaysian troops. In that operation, 18 US Rangers were killed and 84 wounded. Their bodies were dragged through the streets of Mogadishu with images broadcast internationally. This horrified the US government and public. The US unwillingness to bear further casualties led to a hasty exit from Somalia in early 1994.
According to Henry Kissinger, though the Somalian intervention was undertaken under the umbrella of the UN, withdrawal from the region was unilateral in nature. The US was never fully committed to UN objectives in Somalia, and once involved it quickly abandoned the project when its own interests were threatened.27 Pakistans experience in Somalia serves as a harsh lesson on how the interests and purposes of the sole superpower and the UN do not necessarily align and smaller countries like Pakistan get entangled if they are not wary.
After the US withdrew from Somalia, other troop contributing nations like Italy, Belgium, France, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, Turkey, Norway, Germany, Sweden, Morocco, Republic of Korea, United Arab Emirates also departed leaving reducing the force level of UNOSOM II from 28,000 to 15,000 troops. This put tremendous pressure on the remaining Pakistani contingents. In its continued commitment to the UN and UNOSOM II, Pakistan contributed additional troops bringing the total of its contribution to 7200. During UNOSOM I and II, 157 peacekeeping personnel died, 37 of whom were Pakistanis. Being the only country to have served in various phases of the mission, Pakistan was the first country to arrive and the last to leave. This unfaltering commitment has established Pakistan as a reliable peacekeeping nation.28
Bosnia: UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR), 1992-1996
In 1991, Yugoslavia succumbed to a chaotic civil war between the ethnic Serbs, Bosnians and Croats. After much delay and debate within the UN and among the European nations, the UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR) was established in 1992 to monitor a cease-fire agreement in Croatia and provide humanitarian assistance to the effected population. Pakistan contributed a 3000 contingent of two battalions and a National Support Headquarters to UNPROFOR in 1994. The Pakistani battalions, PAKBAT 1 and 2 were deployed at Varies and Durdevik in Bosnia, while the National Support Headquarters was based at Split in Croatia. PAKBAT 1 and 2 facilitated the cessation of hostilities between the Bosnians and Croats; supervised the maintenance of ceasefire agreements; acted as liaison between the warring factions and acted as monitors along confrontation lines.29 Pakistan was the first to respond to the humanitarian needs of over 50,000 Bosnian refugees by providing timely assistance and aid to them after the Serbs had run over the UN declared 'safe havens' of Srebrenica and Zepa in July 1995.
Pakistan also participated in the UN Mission in Bosnia Herzegovina (UNMIB, 1994-2002), which was largely a post-conflict reconstruction and rehabilitation mission. It was one of the 14-non NATO countries that participated in the NATO-led operation called Implementation Force (IFOR, 1995-1996) in Bosnia, making a contribution of 1000 troops.30 Pakistan's reason for participating in a non-UN peacekeeping operation was its commitment and sympathy for the Bosnia people, whose wholescale ethnic-cleansing had become unbearable for the people of Pakistan. The militarly participation in the NATO forces provided Pakistan with a proverbial foot in the door into the higher echelons of NATO representing the territory of Europe. That participation exposed the Pakistani military personnel to modern and state-of-the-art machinery, equipment and communication systems; cohesive planning of military combat and patrols and various facets of greater inter-operationalablilty.
Over 6,000 Pakistani soldiers have served for peace in Bosnia, in which six laid down their lives. Pakistans indefatigable support to the people and Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina has been appreciated over the years. An editorial of a Bosnian News Magazine, Ratni Haber, reflects the warm feelings of the Bosnian people towards the Pakistani peacekeepers:
PAKBAT I has not only protected us from the brutal assault of Serb offensive but also infused a new spirit into our lives. They have given us all sorts of humanitarian help, taught us the values of Islam and above all given us constant medical care in form of their hospital.31
In visit to Pakistan in 2004, the Bosnian Foreign Secretary stressed that the existing political relations between Pakistan and Bosnia should be further strengthened and reflected in the bilateral economic relations as well.32 This indicates the potential that peacekeeping activities have in furthering bilateral ties and their positive impact on foreign policy issues.
Issues of Concern
The Under-Secretary General of UN Peacekeeping Operations, Mr. Jean-Marie Guehénno, during his visit to Pakistan in 2004, remarked that despite the increased demand for expansion of peacekeeping operations throughout the world, many of the rich countries of the North have re-oriented their budgets to address issues and concerns related to terrorism. Monetary contributions and commitment to UN peacekeeping operations have plummeted across the world.33
Amidst these developments, Pakistan, however, has not wavered in its support for issues of humanitarian concern worldwide, without any consideration for region, race or religion. It remains committed to the UN and its peacekeeping activities as its largest troops contributor and has been involved in the successful completion of missions in Somalia (UNOSOM I-II, 7200 soldiers), Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL, 38567 soldiers), and The Congo (MONCU, 1066 soldiers). According to the Under-Secretary General, this contribution is highly valued, and the UN looks towards Pakistan for continued commitment to its peacekeeping operations.34
Pakistans active participation in peacekeeping operations and its role is impeded by issues, which need to be evaluated and highlighted. Some of the pressing ones have been listed below.
1. Lack of a National Doctrine of Peacekeeping
Over the years, Pakistans foreign policy and consequently its peacekeeping activities, have been directed by its ideological commitment to the principles of multilateralism and internationalism as enunciated by Quaid-e-Azam, as he stated on January 23, 1948: Pakistan, which has been recently admitted to the United Nations Organisation, will do everything in its power to strengthen the Organisation and help it in the achievement of the ideals which have been set up as its goal.' However, Pakistan presently lacks the doctrinal debate and consensus or attention on which to develop an evolving rationale to respond to the changing realities.
The international system is in a constant state of change and peacekeeping tasks perforce reflect these transformations. Peacekeeping has progressed from first to third and possibly fourth generation roles over the years. Role and responsibilities of peacekeepers have drastically expanded in scale and scope due to the change in the nature of conflicts, and the UNs response to them. Issues of intra-state warfare, peace-enforcement, and participation in high-risk volatile theatres of operation, pre-emptive warfare and pre-emptive peacekeeping add to the complexities of present-day peacekeeping activities.
It is imperative for Pakistan to respond to these global changes in an appropriate manner. Considering the active role that Pakistan has played in UN peacekeeping operations and how it has benefited Pakistans foreign and military policy, it is time to buttress Quiad-e-Azams ideological framework with a national doctrine of peacekeeping. The doctrine should set political, practical and operational parameters in cognisance of Pakistans international standing and should direct its future peacekeeping directions.
Countries like the US, Britain and France have evolved national doctrines for peacekeeping. Britain's doctrine is a comprehensive document, which has been issued as an Army Field Manual entitled Wider Peacekeeping. It clearly envisions good peacekeeping practices and pragmatically outlines the roles of its soldiers, and delineates the expectations from the UN. Similarly, Pakistan needs to formulate a national doctrine of peacekeeping, which responds to the realities of today and prepares it for the possibilities of tomorrow in light of its national interest.
2. Weak Mechanisms for Deciding Participation in Peacekeeping Operations
A lack of a national doctrine confounds the decision-making through which participation in peacekeeping missions is undertaken. Currently, after the UNSC decides to send a mission to a conflict area it issues a resolution detailing the mandate of the mission and asks member states to make necessary contributions for the missions. In Pakistan, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs makes a policy decision for participation in a mission. The General Headquarters (GHQ) of the Pakistan armed forces and specifically the Peacekeeping Cell at the GHQ decide the scope and scale, logistics and operational details of the Pakistani contingent.
In this decision-making process the involvement of the parliament or public opinion is absent. Sweden, as a contributor towards peacekeeping provides a noteworthy example for Pakistan to emulate. The Swedish constitution, as the final arbiter, prescribes that a Swedish armed unit can be sent abroad in any of the following three cases only:
If the Parliament so decides.
If it is in compliance with a binding international commit-ment, already approved by Parliament.
If it is permitted under a law, previously enacted by Parliament, defining the conditions for the measure in question.
Besides the mentioned reasons, Swedish law on national service does not permit the employment of drafted servicemen for any purpose except that of training or the defence of Sweden.35
Public support based on public debates insulates the establishment from overt and covert pressures exerted on it whenever it has to commit troops to contentious and complex conflict areas in the national interest. The Pakistani parliament must have a decisive say in deciding matters of committing troops to prevent the country from over-stretching its troop commitments or becoming embroiled in conflicts that may have negative fallouts and far-reaching repercussions.
3. The Debate of Financial Gains vis-a-vis the Issue of 'Cannon Fodder'
Till the early 1990s, American and European soldiers formed the financial and physical backbone of UN peacekeeping forces. However, their participation has acutely decreased, as a significantly large number of troops are being contributed by developing countries. Internationally, a view is developing that, UN peacekeeping is being subcontracted to Third World soldiers who endure the physical risk, while rich countries bear the financial cost.36 According to an opinion presented in the Washington Post, 'poor countries willingly send their soldiers to dangerous places because, for them, peacekeeping is a lucrative business. At home soldiers cost money, but as blue helmets they generate income, about $1,000 per soldier per month. Blue helmets have become an export product.37
Presently, Pakistan (8544 personnel), Bangladesh (7163), Nigeria (3579), Ghana (3579) and India (2934) are the five main contributors to UN peacekeeping forces providing approximately 25,561 personnel amongst themselves. The five permanent members (P-5) of the UNSC (the US, Britain, France, Russia and China), who authorise all blue beret operations, provide 2802 personnel in total; far fewer than each of the large contributors individually (for more detail see Appendix B). Lakhdar Brahimi, who headed a UN panel that presented the Report of the Panel on UN Peace-Operations (Brahimi Report), remarked about the growing disparity of contributions, you can't have a situation where some people contribute, blood and some contribute money. That's not the UN we want.38
Regarding its contributions to UN peacekeeping operations, Pakistan must retain its focus on its strategic and foreign policy priorities. It is imperative that Pakistani peacekeepers are viewed neither as mercenaries nor cannon fodder - this would be a loss of credibility for the nation as well as the Pakistan armed forces. Participation in a mission should only be approved after its cost-benefits are ascertained and strategic imperatives, political gains and ideological principles assessed and are backed up by a national consensus.
4. International Visibility and Networking
Although Pakistan is the largest troop contributor in the world today, its presence at the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) and in the international debates pertaining to peacekeeping is meagre. Pakistan's exclusion from policy levels does not match its troop contributions. For example, unlike all major financial and troops contributors such as India,39 Nigeria, China, Sweden, US and others, Pakistan was absent from the initiative Challenges of Peace Operations: Into the 21st Century.40 The aim of the Challenges Project is to foster and encourage a culture of cross-professional cooperation and partnership, with the primary objective of making practical recommendations that will benefit the effectiveness and legitimacy of multinational and multidisciplinary peace operations.
Pakistan needs to build upon networks like International Association for Peacekeeping Training Centres (IAPTC).41 The aim of the Association is to facilitate communication and exchange of information between the various peacekeeping training centres and/or among people responsible for, and interested in, peacekeeping training.
Lack of involvement and visibility in such international networks amount to missed opportunities to participate and project Pakistans viewpoint and share its invaluable experiences in peacekeeping.
A vacuum of authentic data and policy analysis on peacekeeping perceptions and public knowledge has been created in Pakistan, due to the lack of independent research by Pakistani researchers and academicians on the issues of peacekeeping. Internationally peacekeeping is taught as a subject in numerous international universities, and serious academic, civil and military research is dedicated to it. The Inter-Services Public Relations (ISPR), Foreign Ministry and GHQ hold periodic seminars, but unfortunately, the establishments efforts on the whole remain disjointed and lack continuity.42
5. Institutional Infrastructure
Peacekeeping needs to be treated as central facet of Pakistani foreign and military policy. In May 2004, the Foreign Ministry proposed the establishment of a Peacekeeping Training Institute in Pakistan. It is imperative that this training institute is operationalised at the earliest possible. Pakistan lags far behind in this aspect in comparison to its neighbours. Bangladesh Institute of Peace Support Operations Training Centre for UN Peacekeeping and the United Service Institution for India are highly functional entities. Both institutes impart training, develop new methodologies, build networks and bilateral relationships and contribute towards the evolution of national doctrines.
6. Lack of Civilian Involvement
The backup support provided by civil participation has become an intricate and fundamental part of any peacekeeping mission. Peacekeeping has evolved to include preventive diplomacy, peace-building, post-conflict reconstruction and rehabilitation, collectively known as peace operations. The aspect of military involvement has become a segment of a larger more comprehensive operation. Whole societies often have to be rebuilt and large-scale humanitarian efforts in which doctors, civil engineers, consultants, psychologists, negotiators, educationists, planners and peace-makers have to be taken on board. In 1993, UN peacekeeping missions deployed more than 70,000 military and almost 10,000 civilian personnel across the globe.43 The participation of Pakistani civilians in international peacekeeping missions is non-existent, and its scope needs to be considered and explored by the policy makers and planners of peace operations in Pakistan.
7. Lack of Implementation of Resolution 1325
On October 31, 2000, the UNSC passed Resolution 1325, the first resolution ever passed by the sanctioning body that specifically addresses the impact of war on women, and women's contributions to conflict resolution and sustainable peace.44 It reaffirms the important role of women in the prevention and resolution of conflicts and in peace-building and stresses the importance of their equal participation and full involvement in all efforts for the maintenance and promotion of peace and security, and the need to increase their role in decision-making with regard to conflict prevention and resolution. For this purpose it urges member states to ensure increased representation of women at all decision-making levels in national, regional and international institutions and mechanisms for the prevention, management, and resolution of conflict.45
Pakistan has been unable to implement Resolution 1325 and out of the 8544 personnel contributed by Pakistan, participation by women as civilians or military personnel is zero.
8. Threat of HIV/AIDs
UNSC Resolution 1308 adopted on July 17, 2000, identifies HIV/AIDS as a potential threat to human security. The resolution addresses HIV/AIDS specifically in the context of peacekeeping operations tasking UNAIDS to cooperate with member states to develop effective long term strategies for HIV/AIDS education, prevention, voluntary and confidential testing and counselling, and treatment of their (member states) personnel as an important part of their participation in peacekeeping operations.46
On April 17, 2004, the Under-Secretary General, Peter Piot, executive director of UNAIDS, raised the alarm in the UNSC that HIV/AIDS represents a challenge to every one of the 42,000 soldiers and police officers currently under UN command.47 The threat of HIV/Aids is grave to peacekeepers, particularly to those serving in Africa.
Currently, seven peacekeeping missions are underway in Africa: in Sierra Leone, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Ethiopia/Eritrea, Cote d'Ivoire, Liberia, Burundi and Western Sahara. Pakistani troops are serving on six out of the seven missions in Africa. The challenge of HIV is menacing. Awareness and training about these grave issues need to be increased for Pakistani peacekeepers.
9. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Peacekeeping has become a risky and volatile endeavour. Vulnerable to deadly attacks, exposure to disease and extreme mental stress impairs a soldier's personal and professional capability. An investigation of Norwegian peacekeepers who served in the UN Interim Force in Lebanon documented that 15% of those who completed their service developed PTSD. While approximately 8% of American peacekeepers in Somalia met the criteria for PTSD five months after their return to the US and 3% of Dutch peacekeepers in the former Yugoslavia developed PTSD. Clinical studies demonstrate that, in addition to those who develop PTSD, many more peacekeepers suffer from significant, sub-threshold levels of PTSD symptoms.48 PTSD in peacekeepers is now an expected fallout and many contributing countries now take necessary precautionary and post-mission curative steps. It is surprising that no case of PTSD among the 8544 Pakistani peacekeepers serving and having served has been reported or made public.
Pakistan needs to vastly improve the qualitative health measures for its peacekeepers to ensure safeguards for their full mental and physical health in order to provide best service for their national armies.
10. Protection of Personnel
The protection of peacekeepers is enshrined in the 1994 UN Convention under the provision for Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel.49 This Convention seeks to improve the protection level of UN and Associated Personnel who undertake the dangerous task of participating in peace support operations and punish the perpetrators of attacks against these personnel.
Pakistan to date has lost over 80 soldiers in peacekeeping duties around the world. The largest casualties were in Somalia where 24 soldiers were killed in the surprise ambush of June 5, 1992, followed by the plane crash in Sierra Leone which killed 14 Pakistani soldiers in July 2004. The deaths of Pakistani soldiers needs thorough investigation. The Convention of Safety must be fully implemented and enforced by the Government of Pakistan to ensure the safety of Pakistani troops.
Recommendations
Pakistan has made significant contributions to UN peacekeeping. However, it has the potential to further qualitatively and quantitatively maximise its contributions. Some selected recommendations are given:
1) Policy Level
a) Doctrine of Peacekeeping
A national doctrine of peacekeeping needs to be evolved which sets the parameters for participation in a mission; directs the scale and scope of its contributions and sets provisions and conditions upon which participation in a mission is justified. Members of the Parliament, relevant personnel from the Foreign Affairs Ministry, GHQ and academicians should help formulate the national doctrine.
b) Institutional Reform
i. Inter-department coordination among relevant departments should be institutionalised through a focal department.
ii. Conjoined effort should be made to increase Pakistan's presence in the political, strategy, deployment and planning divisions at the Department of Peacekeeping Operations at the UN (DPKO).
iii. The Memorandum of Understanding signed for the payments should be negotiated in favour of better terms for Pakistan.
2) Operational Level
Pakistan should ensure that its participation in any mission is determined by sound motives, full preparedness and clear objectives; while at the operational level, a clear, practicable and robust mandate must be issued by the UNSC, with robust rules of engagement. Furthermore it should;
i. Participate only in those missions for which its soldiers are suitably trained, grouped, equipped and protected.
ii. Demand and ensure adequate provisions and equipment from the UN for participation.
iii. Ensure that clear chain of command and control is articulated within its own contingent, with other participating contingents and with the Force Commander of the mission.
iv. As ambassadors of Pakistan, it is important that the peacekeepers are seen as neutral members managing the conflict at all Arial, no deviation from the given mandate of its peacekeeping role should take place.
3) Training Institute
All troops leaving for operations should be imparted with the necessary professional and technical training in an appropriately tasked training institute where;
i. Participating troops are provided with in-depth information of the host country, familiarised with the conflict and all aspects of its undertaking.
ii. Instilled with cultural and gender sensitivity for fellow peacekeepers and for population of the host country among Pakistani peacekeepers.
iii. All measures for physical and mental fitness of its peacekeepers as well as provisions for eventualities are undertaken.
iv. Liaison is established with the DPKO and other similar training institutes to encourage sharing of experiences, knowledge and know-how.
v. The experiences, skills and lessons that Pakistani peacekeepers have learnt in operations, are fully disseminated to other Pakistani defence personal upon their return.
4) Public Awareness
i. Encourage the participation of civilians and other country-based humanitarian agencies as well as media in missions.
ii. Inform and encourage public, academic and civil-military debate and discussion on the issues regarding peacekeeping. This will help build a domestic national consensus, and help enhance the capabilities of the peacekeepers.
iii. Encourage the role and involvement of media to project peacekeeping, Pakistan and its peacekeepers in a positive light nationally and internationally.
As the peacekeeping evolves into a complex endeavour with all manners of dangers, serious research must be undertaken in Pakistan to address and contribute to the emerging national and international issues and concerns of peacekeeping. It is imperative that public opinion is involved in a transparent and participatory manner in the decision-making process in which all the motivations for participation in a particular mission are clarified, gains identified and repercussions weighed.
Furthermore, it is important that a balanced North-South troop participation takes place, since the involvement of countries from the industrialised North is accompanied with increased financial and political will, which help to ensure successful mission completion, as well as better levels of operational and safety standards.
Pakistan, through its participation in peacekeeping missions, can and does play a role in shaping the international system. Peacekeeping manifests Pakistans commitments to peace and internationalism, and it should continue to be an active contributor while striving to maintain the delicate balance between its national interest goals and the principles of humanitarianism.
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