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Egypt paralyzed by Ethiopia and Sudan
Ethiopia's erection of the Renaissance dam on the Blue Nile exacerbated tensions between riparian countries. Egypt is concerned that its share of the waters of the river will decrease significantly, but it seems unable to oppose the Addis Ababa project, which is now supported by Sudan.
" Egypt is a gift from the Nile " ! All school children across the world who have studied the Pharaohs know this formula the great Greek historian and traveler Herodotus, who lived in the V th century BC. The Roman Tibullus, in the century before the birth of Christ, paid homage to the river, for the " soil you water does not claim the water of the sky, and the parched grass does not implore Jupiter who distributes rainwater 1 . " However, this millennial manna is threatened and in Cairo, experts as officials, intellectuals as diplomats recognize, on condition of anonymity, that the battle led by Egypt to maintain control of the water of the longest river in the world is badly engaged .
With the planned completion this year of the huge Renaissance dam built on the Blue Nile , Ethiopia will have the upper hand on the flow of water. " We lost," reluctantly admits an Egyptian official. We have not been able to prevent the construction of the dam ; we have not been able to obtain modifications to the project, including the reduction of its capacity. Our only hope, and it is thin, is that the filling of the Dam Lake takes place over a longer period than the three years provided by Addis Ababa. "If not, the country is likely to experience water shortages, possibly as early as next year. And it still evokes a time in Cairo, more or less legendary episode of the Ethiopian king Dawit IIwhich at the turn of XIV th and XV th centuries threatened the Mamluk sultans to bar the Nile 2 .
A demographic explosion
The file on the use of the waters of the Nile is complex, fed both by international law (how should we distribute the waters of a river that cross several countries ?), By history (the many treaties signed) , by rhetoric about the " inalienable rights " of each other, and by the balance of power between riparian countries. At the risk of schematizing, let's try to identify the essential data of the litigation. The sources of the Nile are in Ethiopia, which feeds the Blue Nile, and Burundi, which feeds the White Nile. Blue Nile and White Nile link to Khartoum, the former providing 90 % of the total water. Since the beginning of the 20th century In the last century, Egypt has had its water rights recognized by various treaties, all the more crucial because the country is 97 % dependent on them , unlike other riparian countries which, like Ethiopia, have high rainfall.
In 1959, Cairo signed with Sudan, which gained independence in 1956, a water allocation agreement: it gets 55.5 billion m 3 and its neighbor 18.5 billion, the remaining 10 billion being lost by evaporation. Until the 1990s, despite claims from other riparian countries, things remained as they were: Egypt dominated the Nile.
Yet this seemingly intangible baseline data has been disrupted. First, the region experienced a population explosion: in 1959 Egypt had 25 million inhabitants, Sudan 11 million and Ethiopia 27 million. In 2016, their respective populations are 95 million, 40 million (the amputation of southern Sudan became independent in 2011), and 102 million. And the other riparian countries have experienced a similar increase. To this must be added the intensification of livestock farming, which accounts for half of their agricultural GNP for Sudan and Ethiopia, and absorbs more and more water, while rainfall decreases as a result of global warming . Finally, urbanization has progressed rapidly, leading also to a growing consumption of water3 . It has therefore become a rarer, more expensive resource, even as desertification spreads into the Horn of Africa.
A project above all political
It is in these conditions that Ethiopia launches the Renaissance project on the Blue Nile. It will be the largest dam in Africa, more imposing than the High Dam Aswan, built in the 1960s by Egypt with the Soviet aid and showcase of the Nasser regime. 175 meters high and 1800 meters long, its storage capacity will be 67 billion cubic meters, equivalent to almost a year of river flow. Decided unilaterally, its construction started in 2013 by an Italian company would be, according to Addis Ababa, completed to two-thirds. It will produce 6,450 megawatts ( MW ) of electricity.
For Hani Raslan, a researcher at the Al-Ahram Center for Political and Strategic Studies and one of Egypt's leading scholars, the Ethiopian project is " primarily political. It aims to consolidate national unity in a country where power is monopolized by a small ethnic minority, the Tigrayans, and faces many oppositions, including the largest ethnic group, the Oromos. " They have shown particular end 2016-2017 and Addis Ababa accused Cairo to push for revolt. " Why do you want to produce more than 6,000 MW of electricity," Raslan wonders, while the consumption of Ethiopia and all its neighbors combined is barely 800 MW ? "
" It would have been more rational from an economic point of view, but also from an ecological point of view, to build a series of small dams ", confirms a Western expert. Because the consequences of the construction of these large dams (not only in Africa) have been debated for a long time. And the expert reminded: " The dams retain water but also the sediment carried by the rivers and used to fertilize the land. "
But the Addis Ababa regime has invested its prestige and authority in the dam, mobilized all its internal resources and imposed forced contributions to the population. And nothing seems to stop it. " Ethiopia behaves like Turkey, " strangles Raslan, which in his mouth is not a compliment: relations between Cairo and Ankara have deteriorated since the arrival of Abdel Fattah Sissi in power in 2013, Recep Tayyip Erdogan being accused of supporting the Muslim Brotherhood, sworn enemies of the regime. Raslan refers to the Southeast Anatolia project (Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi, GAP ), with the Atatürk dam, which has been supplemented by about 20 smaller works that have dried up in part.the Euphrates and the Tigris and deprived of water resources Syria and Iraq 4 . Now it would be Egypt's turn to be " dry " ...
" The crisis is over, there is no crisis "
In the face of this Ethiopian determination and the Sudanese rally to the Addis Ababa position, Egypt has been unable to implement a coherent strategy, oscillating between ultra-nationalist rhetoric - especially in the media that are quick to ignite for this cause. what is the Nile - and a public affirmation of its willingness to cooperate that often confines to illusion. Thus, on the sidelines of the meeting of the African Union summit of January 2018, we saw Sissi surrounded by the two presidents of Ethiopia and Sudan pretend that the problems would be solved in one month: " We have the same interests, we speak like a only state, not like three states. The crisis is over, there is no crisis. "At the same time, he gave up the World Bank's request for mediation, which he had proposed a few weeks earlier to unblock the file. Already in March 2015, an interim agreement had been signed between the three countries, which Sissi had approved against the advice of many of his relatives, including his advisor on national security issues Faiza Abu El-Naga. He remained a dead letter.
In a region where there is no willingness for cooperation, where each of the three regimes favors a nationalist approach, Egypt, even if it does not recognize it, faces the decline of its influence. As Nabil Abdel Fattah, also a researcher at the center of Al-Ahram, a good connoisseur of Sudan, notes, " our diplomatic capacities have been shrinking in Africa for decades ; we were looking to the United States and Europe. We have neglected the profound transformations of this continent and we are short of researchers, diplomats, and military people who really know Ethiopia. We have even been unable, to break the impasse, to operate the Coptic networks, while the churches of the two countries are deeply linked . "
As relations between France and Algeria
And the turnaround of Sudan, traditional ally of Egypt ? " The history of relations between our two countries is complex," says Nabil Abdel Fattah. We occupied the country for half of the XX th century and it gained its independence against our will. There exists between the two neighbors a form of relations of love-hate similar to that which regulates the relations between France and Algeria . " Even after the independence of Sudan in 1956, the human and economic relations have remained close. " The greatest Sudanese writers, Nabil Abdel Fattah notes, like Tayib Salih, author ofSeason of the northward migration, have lived and worked in Cairo. "
But time has passed and relationships have become more distended. Cairo has neglected its southern neighbor. On June 30, 1989, a coup in Khartoum brought the Islamists to power with Omar El-Bashir. " It's been twenty-eight years since this power took hold," notes an Egyptian diplomat, " and it's been twenty-eight years since he's done anything to cut relations between the two countries. It shut down Egyptian universities in Sudan and fueled hostility towards Egypt, particularly among young people who have not experienced the period of relations. In fact, it is a power of the Muslim Brotherhood who wants revenge for what happened in 2013. "
" A culture of exclusion has spread in Sudan, " said Nabil Abdelfattah. Salafists have extended their hold on society, on young people, often with the help of Saudi Arabia. " While recognizing that there is an anti-racism Sudanese in Egypt and that his country had frequently neglected development issues in its southern neighbor.
Regularly agitated by Khartoum, one of the points of bilateral dispute concerns the Halayib triangle in the south-east of Egypt, claimed by Sudan since independence. " They talk about occupation," raslan said , pointing to our army as " Misraili," a word that combines Egypt ( misr) and Israel, and thus draws a parallel between the occupation of Palestine and that of Halyib. They lost South Sudan became independent and they raise the flag of Halayib to forget it ! " And the two capitals regularly accuse of sheltering their respective opponents: the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood or the insurgents in Darfur.The visit of President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan to Sudan and the debates on the installation of a military base also worried in Cairo.
Between Saudi Arabia and Turkey
Yet, beyond his ideological orientation, what characterizes Omar El-Bashir - indicted by the International Criminal Court ( ICC ) for genocide and crimes against humanity in Darfur - is his pragmatism. A long-time ally with Iran, he broke with Iran to join Saudi Arabia in 2014 - which helped lift US sanctions on October 6, 2017 - and sent thousands of troops to Yemen. And even in Egypt, it is recognized that Khartoum's rallying to Ethiopia on the Nile issue is a form of realism: " Sudan has understood that Ethiopia will win," says an Egyptian diplomat, and he hopes there find his account, abundant and free electricity. "However, he neglects the ecological repercussions and the diplomat to agitate the very unlikely possibility that the dam collapses, and Khartoum " would be under ten meters of water " .
Already torn between the three countries, the Nile and the Horn of Africa have become the hostages of the regional powers that clash in the Middle East, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Turkey and Iran. And in this chess game of great complexity, Egypt is rather isolated. After a difficult period with Arabia, relations have improved, however Riyadh continues to provide essential economic aid to Sudan, which has just devalued its national currency. " They paid the price of blood in Yemen, and for the Saudis, Bedouins, that counts "remark, a little contemptuous, an Egyptian intellectual. With support from Sudan and the United States for whom it is a key ally in the war against terrorism, particularly in Somalia and the Horn of Africa, Ethiopia has recently received support from Turkey. President Mulatu Teshome visited Ankara in February 2018 to meet Erdoğan. In November 2017, the Prime Minister of Ethiopia signed a major bilateral cooperation agreement in Doha - and Qatar has even been accused by the Egyptian press of financing the construction of the dam, which is the fake news 5 .
A water war ?
If diplomacy fails, is a war imaginable ? " The next conflict in the Near East region will focus on the issue of water. (....) Water will become a more valuable source than oil, " assured the Egyptian Boutros Boutros-Ghali in 1992 who had just taken office as Secretary-General of the United Nations. Certainly, we hear sound of boots and the Sudanese press announced in January the creation of a joint force with Ethiopia intended in particular to protect the dam 6. The Egyptian fleet crosses into the Bab Al-Mandeb Strait as part of the war in Yemen, but could play a role in the event of a conflict with Ethiopia. And Cairo has deployed troops to Eritrea, the deadly enemy of Ethiopia, who opposed a deadly conflict (1998-2000). " Yet, recognizes an Egyptian diplomat, if our military superiority over Ethiopia is unquestionable, a war scenario is unlikely. He would totally isolate Egypt. " And the adventure itself would probably be less easy than think our interlocutor.
" For Sissi, notes an Egyptian journalist, it is urgent to wait and let the presidential election run by the end of March. " But what will happen after ? When the Ethiopians begin to store this summer billion m 3 of water, depriving Egypt of part of its resources ? Since 2013, Sissi has developed a nationalist rhetoric, even chauvinistic ; but the transfer last year to Saudi Arabia of the two islands of Tiran and Sanafir, where Saudi soldiers have just settled, provoked an outcry and a fall in popularityeven among his strongest supporters. Can it make Egypt lose the Nile, the jugular vein of the country for thousands of years ?
Alain Gresh
1 From the Nile to Alexandria, water stories, CNRS / Center for Alexandrine Studies, 2011.
2 Read the scholarly study of A. Caquot, " Preliminary Overview on Maṣḥafa Ṭēfut de Gechen Amba " , Annals of Ethiopia, 1955 ; p. 89-108.
3 Read Ibrahim Elnur, " The Changing Hydraulics of Conflict and Cooperation in the Nile Basin " in The Burden of Ressurces. Oil and Water in the Gulf and Nile Basin (Sharif E. Elmusa, ed.), Cairo Papers in Social Sciences, Vol. 30, No. 4, winter 2007.
4 The project was launched in the 1980s, long before the arrival of the ruling Justice and Development Party ( AKP ).
5 Ethiopia had cut diplomatic relations with Qatar in April 2008 following critical coverage by Al-Jazeera the situation in Ogaden.
6 Al Mihjar , Khartoum, January 17, 2018.
source: https://orientxxi.info/magazine/qui-a-perdu-le-nil,2268
Ethiopia's erection of the Renaissance dam on the Blue Nile exacerbated tensions between riparian countries. Egypt is concerned that its share of the waters of the river will decrease significantly, but it seems unable to oppose the Addis Ababa project, which is now supported by Sudan.
" Egypt is a gift from the Nile " ! All school children across the world who have studied the Pharaohs know this formula the great Greek historian and traveler Herodotus, who lived in the V th century BC. The Roman Tibullus, in the century before the birth of Christ, paid homage to the river, for the " soil you water does not claim the water of the sky, and the parched grass does not implore Jupiter who distributes rainwater 1 . " However, this millennial manna is threatened and in Cairo, experts as officials, intellectuals as diplomats recognize, on condition of anonymity, that the battle led by Egypt to maintain control of the water of the longest river in the world is badly engaged .
With the planned completion this year of the huge Renaissance dam built on the Blue Nile , Ethiopia will have the upper hand on the flow of water. " We lost," reluctantly admits an Egyptian official. We have not been able to prevent the construction of the dam ; we have not been able to obtain modifications to the project, including the reduction of its capacity. Our only hope, and it is thin, is that the filling of the Dam Lake takes place over a longer period than the three years provided by Addis Ababa. "If not, the country is likely to experience water shortages, possibly as early as next year. And it still evokes a time in Cairo, more or less legendary episode of the Ethiopian king Dawit IIwhich at the turn of XIV th and XV th centuries threatened the Mamluk sultans to bar the Nile 2 .
A demographic explosion
The file on the use of the waters of the Nile is complex, fed both by international law (how should we distribute the waters of a river that cross several countries ?), By history (the many treaties signed) , by rhetoric about the " inalienable rights " of each other, and by the balance of power between riparian countries. At the risk of schematizing, let's try to identify the essential data of the litigation. The sources of the Nile are in Ethiopia, which feeds the Blue Nile, and Burundi, which feeds the White Nile. Blue Nile and White Nile link to Khartoum, the former providing 90 % of the total water. Since the beginning of the 20th century In the last century, Egypt has had its water rights recognized by various treaties, all the more crucial because the country is 97 % dependent on them , unlike other riparian countries which, like Ethiopia, have high rainfall.
In 1959, Cairo signed with Sudan, which gained independence in 1956, a water allocation agreement: it gets 55.5 billion m 3 and its neighbor 18.5 billion, the remaining 10 billion being lost by evaporation. Until the 1990s, despite claims from other riparian countries, things remained as they were: Egypt dominated the Nile.
Yet this seemingly intangible baseline data has been disrupted. First, the region experienced a population explosion: in 1959 Egypt had 25 million inhabitants, Sudan 11 million and Ethiopia 27 million. In 2016, their respective populations are 95 million, 40 million (the amputation of southern Sudan became independent in 2011), and 102 million. And the other riparian countries have experienced a similar increase. To this must be added the intensification of livestock farming, which accounts for half of their agricultural GNP for Sudan and Ethiopia, and absorbs more and more water, while rainfall decreases as a result of global warming . Finally, urbanization has progressed rapidly, leading also to a growing consumption of water3 . It has therefore become a rarer, more expensive resource, even as desertification spreads into the Horn of Africa.
A project above all political
It is in these conditions that Ethiopia launches the Renaissance project on the Blue Nile. It will be the largest dam in Africa, more imposing than the High Dam Aswan, built in the 1960s by Egypt with the Soviet aid and showcase of the Nasser regime. 175 meters high and 1800 meters long, its storage capacity will be 67 billion cubic meters, equivalent to almost a year of river flow. Decided unilaterally, its construction started in 2013 by an Italian company would be, according to Addis Ababa, completed to two-thirds. It will produce 6,450 megawatts ( MW ) of electricity.
For Hani Raslan, a researcher at the Al-Ahram Center for Political and Strategic Studies and one of Egypt's leading scholars, the Ethiopian project is " primarily political. It aims to consolidate national unity in a country where power is monopolized by a small ethnic minority, the Tigrayans, and faces many oppositions, including the largest ethnic group, the Oromos. " They have shown particular end 2016-2017 and Addis Ababa accused Cairo to push for revolt. " Why do you want to produce more than 6,000 MW of electricity," Raslan wonders, while the consumption of Ethiopia and all its neighbors combined is barely 800 MW ? "
" It would have been more rational from an economic point of view, but also from an ecological point of view, to build a series of small dams ", confirms a Western expert. Because the consequences of the construction of these large dams (not only in Africa) have been debated for a long time. And the expert reminded: " The dams retain water but also the sediment carried by the rivers and used to fertilize the land. "
But the Addis Ababa regime has invested its prestige and authority in the dam, mobilized all its internal resources and imposed forced contributions to the population. And nothing seems to stop it. " Ethiopia behaves like Turkey, " strangles Raslan, which in his mouth is not a compliment: relations between Cairo and Ankara have deteriorated since the arrival of Abdel Fattah Sissi in power in 2013, Recep Tayyip Erdogan being accused of supporting the Muslim Brotherhood, sworn enemies of the regime. Raslan refers to the Southeast Anatolia project (Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi, GAP ), with the Atatürk dam, which has been supplemented by about 20 smaller works that have dried up in part.the Euphrates and the Tigris and deprived of water resources Syria and Iraq 4 . Now it would be Egypt's turn to be " dry " ...
" The crisis is over, there is no crisis "
In the face of this Ethiopian determination and the Sudanese rally to the Addis Ababa position, Egypt has been unable to implement a coherent strategy, oscillating between ultra-nationalist rhetoric - especially in the media that are quick to ignite for this cause. what is the Nile - and a public affirmation of its willingness to cooperate that often confines to illusion. Thus, on the sidelines of the meeting of the African Union summit of January 2018, we saw Sissi surrounded by the two presidents of Ethiopia and Sudan pretend that the problems would be solved in one month: " We have the same interests, we speak like a only state, not like three states. The crisis is over, there is no crisis. "At the same time, he gave up the World Bank's request for mediation, which he had proposed a few weeks earlier to unblock the file. Already in March 2015, an interim agreement had been signed between the three countries, which Sissi had approved against the advice of many of his relatives, including his advisor on national security issues Faiza Abu El-Naga. He remained a dead letter.
In a region where there is no willingness for cooperation, where each of the three regimes favors a nationalist approach, Egypt, even if it does not recognize it, faces the decline of its influence. As Nabil Abdel Fattah, also a researcher at the center of Al-Ahram, a good connoisseur of Sudan, notes, " our diplomatic capacities have been shrinking in Africa for decades ; we were looking to the United States and Europe. We have neglected the profound transformations of this continent and we are short of researchers, diplomats, and military people who really know Ethiopia. We have even been unable, to break the impasse, to operate the Coptic networks, while the churches of the two countries are deeply linked . "
As relations between France and Algeria
And the turnaround of Sudan, traditional ally of Egypt ? " The history of relations between our two countries is complex," says Nabil Abdel Fattah. We occupied the country for half of the XX th century and it gained its independence against our will. There exists between the two neighbors a form of relations of love-hate similar to that which regulates the relations between France and Algeria . " Even after the independence of Sudan in 1956, the human and economic relations have remained close. " The greatest Sudanese writers, Nabil Abdel Fattah notes, like Tayib Salih, author ofSeason of the northward migration, have lived and worked in Cairo. "
But time has passed and relationships have become more distended. Cairo has neglected its southern neighbor. On June 30, 1989, a coup in Khartoum brought the Islamists to power with Omar El-Bashir. " It's been twenty-eight years since this power took hold," notes an Egyptian diplomat, " and it's been twenty-eight years since he's done anything to cut relations between the two countries. It shut down Egyptian universities in Sudan and fueled hostility towards Egypt, particularly among young people who have not experienced the period of relations. In fact, it is a power of the Muslim Brotherhood who wants revenge for what happened in 2013. "
" A culture of exclusion has spread in Sudan, " said Nabil Abdelfattah. Salafists have extended their hold on society, on young people, often with the help of Saudi Arabia. " While recognizing that there is an anti-racism Sudanese in Egypt and that his country had frequently neglected development issues in its southern neighbor.
Regularly agitated by Khartoum, one of the points of bilateral dispute concerns the Halayib triangle in the south-east of Egypt, claimed by Sudan since independence. " They talk about occupation," raslan said , pointing to our army as " Misraili," a word that combines Egypt ( misr) and Israel, and thus draws a parallel between the occupation of Palestine and that of Halyib. They lost South Sudan became independent and they raise the flag of Halayib to forget it ! " And the two capitals regularly accuse of sheltering their respective opponents: the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood or the insurgents in Darfur.The visit of President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan to Sudan and the debates on the installation of a military base also worried in Cairo.
Between Saudi Arabia and Turkey
Yet, beyond his ideological orientation, what characterizes Omar El-Bashir - indicted by the International Criminal Court ( ICC ) for genocide and crimes against humanity in Darfur - is his pragmatism. A long-time ally with Iran, he broke with Iran to join Saudi Arabia in 2014 - which helped lift US sanctions on October 6, 2017 - and sent thousands of troops to Yemen. And even in Egypt, it is recognized that Khartoum's rallying to Ethiopia on the Nile issue is a form of realism: " Sudan has understood that Ethiopia will win," says an Egyptian diplomat, and he hopes there find his account, abundant and free electricity. "However, he neglects the ecological repercussions and the diplomat to agitate the very unlikely possibility that the dam collapses, and Khartoum " would be under ten meters of water " .
Already torn between the three countries, the Nile and the Horn of Africa have become the hostages of the regional powers that clash in the Middle East, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Turkey and Iran. And in this chess game of great complexity, Egypt is rather isolated. After a difficult period with Arabia, relations have improved, however Riyadh continues to provide essential economic aid to Sudan, which has just devalued its national currency. " They paid the price of blood in Yemen, and for the Saudis, Bedouins, that counts "remark, a little contemptuous, an Egyptian intellectual. With support from Sudan and the United States for whom it is a key ally in the war against terrorism, particularly in Somalia and the Horn of Africa, Ethiopia has recently received support from Turkey. President Mulatu Teshome visited Ankara in February 2018 to meet Erdoğan. In November 2017, the Prime Minister of Ethiopia signed a major bilateral cooperation agreement in Doha - and Qatar has even been accused by the Egyptian press of financing the construction of the dam, which is the fake news 5 .
A water war ?
If diplomacy fails, is a war imaginable ? " The next conflict in the Near East region will focus on the issue of water. (....) Water will become a more valuable source than oil, " assured the Egyptian Boutros Boutros-Ghali in 1992 who had just taken office as Secretary-General of the United Nations. Certainly, we hear sound of boots and the Sudanese press announced in January the creation of a joint force with Ethiopia intended in particular to protect the dam 6. The Egyptian fleet crosses into the Bab Al-Mandeb Strait as part of the war in Yemen, but could play a role in the event of a conflict with Ethiopia. And Cairo has deployed troops to Eritrea, the deadly enemy of Ethiopia, who opposed a deadly conflict (1998-2000). " Yet, recognizes an Egyptian diplomat, if our military superiority over Ethiopia is unquestionable, a war scenario is unlikely. He would totally isolate Egypt. " And the adventure itself would probably be less easy than think our interlocutor.
" For Sissi, notes an Egyptian journalist, it is urgent to wait and let the presidential election run by the end of March. " But what will happen after ? When the Ethiopians begin to store this summer billion m 3 of water, depriving Egypt of part of its resources ? Since 2013, Sissi has developed a nationalist rhetoric, even chauvinistic ; but the transfer last year to Saudi Arabia of the two islands of Tiran and Sanafir, where Saudi soldiers have just settled, provoked an outcry and a fall in popularityeven among his strongest supporters. Can it make Egypt lose the Nile, the jugular vein of the country for thousands of years ?
Alain Gresh
1 From the Nile to Alexandria, water stories, CNRS / Center for Alexandrine Studies, 2011.
2 Read the scholarly study of A. Caquot, " Preliminary Overview on Maṣḥafa Ṭēfut de Gechen Amba " , Annals of Ethiopia, 1955 ; p. 89-108.
3 Read Ibrahim Elnur, " The Changing Hydraulics of Conflict and Cooperation in the Nile Basin " in The Burden of Ressurces. Oil and Water in the Gulf and Nile Basin (Sharif E. Elmusa, ed.), Cairo Papers in Social Sciences, Vol. 30, No. 4, winter 2007.
4 The project was launched in the 1980s, long before the arrival of the ruling Justice and Development Party ( AKP ).
5 Ethiopia had cut diplomatic relations with Qatar in April 2008 following critical coverage by Al-Jazeera the situation in Ogaden.
6 Al Mihjar , Khartoum, January 17, 2018.
source: https://orientxxi.info/magazine/qui-a-perdu-le-nil,2268
