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Siege of Constantinople (626) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Siege of Constantinople in 626 by the Avars, aided by large numbers of allied Slavs and the Sassanid Persians, ended in a strategic victory for the Byzantines. The failure of the siege saved the Empire from collapse, and, combined with other victories achieved by Emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641) the previous year and in 627, enabled Byzantium to regain her territories and end the destructive Roman-Persian Wars by enforcing a favorable treaty with borders status quo circa 590.
Sasanian conquest and occupation of Jerusalem - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sebeos' account[edit]
The Armenian bishop and historian Sebeos wrote an account of the fall of Jerusalem. Sebeos’ account does not use the polemical language of Antiochus. Sebeos writes that at first the inhabitance of Jerusalem voluntarily submitted to the Jews and Persians, however after a few months the governor appointed by Khosrau II to rule Jerusalem was killed in a Christian revolt.[4]: 206–207, 195[35]
Various dates for the revolt have been given: 9 April or 19 May 614,[4]: 207 and 25 June 615.[35] Sebeos writes that during the revolt many Jews were killed. Some throwing themselves off the city walls to escape. The remaining Jews fled to the Sasanian general. Different names are given for this general: Khoream, Erazmiozan[4]: 69 and Xorheam[35] However they are all thought to refer to Shahrbaraz, who was known to Armenian sources as Khoream.[36] Shahrbaraz’s campaigns are well documented by other sources helping to put time constraints on the siege. Shahrbaraz assembled his troops and went and encamped around Jerusalem and besieged it for 19 days. The walls were breached by undermining the foundations. The Christian death toll of 17,000 was later corrupted to 57,000 in T'ovma Artsruni work History of the House of the Artsrunik'.[4]: 207 35,000 people including the patriarch Zacharias were deported to Mesopotamia. For three days the Persian forces slaughtered and plundered the inhabitants of the city. The city was burnt down. The Jews were then driven from the city and an archpriest named Modestos was appointed over the city.[4]: 69–71[35]
Antiochus' account[edit]
Antiochus Strategos was a 7th-century Byzantine Greek monk living in Palestine. Again dates for the start of the siege vary. Dates given are April 13 614, April 15 614, May 3 614 or May 5 614. On the twenty day[4]: 207 or according to the Georgian text the twenty-first day[4]: 69 the walls were breached. Ballistae were used to bring down the walls.[3] According to Antiochus, shortly after the Persian army entered Jerusalem, an "unprecedented looting and sacrilege" took place. In his words "church after church was burned down alongside the innumerable Christian artifacts, which were stolen or damaged by the ensuing arson".[3] Antiochus Strategos further claimed that captive Christians were gathered near Mamilla reservoir and the Jews offered to help them escape death if they "become Jews and deny Christ". The Christian captives refused, and the Jews in anger purchased the Christians from the Persians and massacred them on the spot. Antiochus wrote:[3]
Then the Jews... as of old they bought the Lord from the Jews with silver, so they purchased Christians out of the reservoir; for they gave the Persians silver, and they bought a Christian and slew him like a sheep.
Some versions of Antiochus’ manuscript record a total Christian death tolls as high as 66,509.[3][4]: 207 Other copies report approximately half this number.[17] The greatest number were found at Mamilla 24,518 corpses; many more than were found anywhere else in the city.[3] Other copies of Strategos's manuscripts report fewer corpses were found at Mamilla, 4,518 or 4,618 corpses.[2] Antiochus' work was originally written in Greek. Only Arabic and Georgian translations survive.[4]: 207
Dionysius' account[edit]
Dionysius of Tel Mahre’s account was written much later in the 9th century. It gives a body count of 90,000. This number is thought to be dubious.[4]: 195, 207
Theophanes' account[edit]
Theophanes the Confessor another 9th century author records that “some say it was 90,000” in reference to the number of Christians killed.[37]
Sefer Zerubbabel[edit]
The Sefer Zerubbabel is a medieval Hebrew apocalypse written in the style of biblical visions (e.g. Daniel, Ezekiel) placed into the mouth of Zerubbabel. It is thought to have been written at least partially during the beginning of the 7th century.[38]
In the Sefer Zerubbabel Aaron's rod, Elijah and Nehemiah ben Hushiel will be hidden in the city of Tiberias. After Nehemiah ben Hushiel takes' possession of Jerusalem he proceeds to sorts out Israel’s genealogical lists according to their families. He is killed in the fifth year which would be 619 during the month of Av (July - August). The Sefer Zerubbabel states that Kavadh II will stab Nehemiah ben Hushiel and Israel. His thoroughly crushed corpse will be thrown down before the gates of Jerusalem. And sixteen of the righteous shall be killed with him. Armilus enters Jerusalem on the 14th day of the new year during the month of Nisan. Assuming the year is 628. This would coincide to March 28 628.[18][6]
Kavadh II made peace with Heraclius in 628 after the reign of Khosrau II. Armilus is thought to be a cryptogram for Heraclius.[39]
Poems by Eleazar ben Killir[edit]
Three piyyut attributed to Eleazar ben Killir are thought to be based on an early version of the Sefer Zerubbabel.[19]:168-169
The first is believed to be dated between 629 and 634. In the text the Jews set up an altar and offer sacrifices however they are not allowed to erect a sanctuary. The Jewish leader who is called the Messiah ben Joseph arises among them and within three months reaches the top. However he is killed by the Persian chief commander in a small sanctuary shortly after.[40][19]:168-169
In a second piyyut which is un-datable the Messiah ben Joseph is named as Nehemiah ben Hushiel.[19]:170-171
A third piyyut titled Oto ha-yom is dated later as the Persians have been defeated by the Byzantines. However a king from Arabia then invades. This poem is thought to data from the early years of the Arab invasion. Nehemiah ben Hushiel is not mentioned. The Messiah ben David of the Sefer Zerubbabel Menahem ben Ammiel is now called the Messiah ben Joseph.[19]:171
Quran[edit]
The fall of Palaestina Prima to the Persians was mentioned as a contemporary event in the thirtieth sūrah of the Qur'an, Sūrat al-Rūm. It went on to predict the imminent defeat of the Persians by the Byzantines: "The Roman Empire has been defeated in a lowest land on earth by, but after this defeat of theirs they will soon be victorious, within a few years" (Qur'an 30:2-4).
Other sources[edit]
Historians have been able to piece together the events following the fall of Jerusalem based on other sources as well. A brief abridged list of the many relevant documents is given below.
Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari and the Khuzistan Chronicle both report that the search for fragments of the true cross involved torturing clergymen.[4]: 207 The Opusculum de Persica captivitate is a document attributed to Modestos. It gives a death toll of 65,000. This number may give an idea of the total Christian population in and around Jerusalem.[17] The Chronicon Paschale is notable because it does not accuse the Jews of Anti-Christian violence or sedition during the fall of Jerusalem in 614.[8]: 790 It is loosely dated to June 614. Another important document is Modestos' Letter.[4]: 207–210
Archaeological evidence[edit]
Despite the claims of large scale destruction, the archaeological evidence do not reveal layers of destruction associated with the Persian conquest.[2] There was also no hard evidence found for the widespread destruction of churches.[2]
A significant number of burial sites were allocated according to Strategius. A mass burial grave at Mamilla cave was discovered in 1989 by Israeli archeologist Ronny Reich. Near the site where Strategius recorded the massacre took place. The human remains were in poor condition containing a minimum of 526 individuals.[41] Other mass burial sites have also been found although they cannot be accurately dated to the Persian conquest of Jerusalem.[2] Yet, excavations of Jerusalem show a continuous habitation in Jerusalem neighborhoods and essentially little impact of population during the period of Persian governorship. As stated by archaeologist Gideon Avni:
... all excavated sites in Jerusalem show a clear pattern of continuity, with no evidence for destruction by the Persian conquest of 614 or the Arab conquest of 636.[2]
Demographic continuity might have resulted from population exchange by the victorious Jewish rebels, but apparently also the Christian habitation remained relatively constant, despite the disturbance by the Persian conquest, and no significant impact on the population of Jerusalem was made during the following period of Sassanid-Jewish dominance.[2]
In 2013, a treasure was found in the Old City of Jerusalem by archaeologists, containing a large stash of Persian coins from the 5th to early 7th centuries and a golden medallion.[42] According to Hebrew University archaeologist Dr. Eilat Mazar, the contents of the discovery in early September 2013 were two bundles containing thirty-six gold coins, gold and silver jewelry, and a gold medallion, ten centimeters in diameter, adorned with images of a menorah, a shofar and a Torah scroll. The item is thought to have been a decoration to hang around a Torah scroll as a breast plate.[42] The find was discovered in a ruined Byzantine public structure a mere 50 meters from the Temple Mount’s southern wall.[42] The way the items were found suggests one bundle was carefully hidden underground, whereas the second was apparently abandoned in haste and scattered across the floor.[42] Given dating, Dr. Mazar suggested the items were abandoned following the Christian re-establishment of control of the city.[42] Since there was only a small Jewish presence in Jerusalem during the Byzantine period, Mazar thinks the treasure was brought to the city by Jewish emissaries after the Persian conquest in 614 CE.[42]
The Siege of Constantinople in 626 by the Avars, aided by large numbers of allied Slavs and the Sassanid Persians, ended in a strategic victory for the Byzantines. The failure of the siege saved the Empire from collapse, and, combined with other victories achieved by Emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641) the previous year and in 627, enabled Byzantium to regain her territories and end the destructive Roman-Persian Wars by enforcing a favorable treaty with borders status quo circa 590.
Sasanian conquest and occupation of Jerusalem - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sebeos' account[edit]
The Armenian bishop and historian Sebeos wrote an account of the fall of Jerusalem. Sebeos’ account does not use the polemical language of Antiochus. Sebeos writes that at first the inhabitance of Jerusalem voluntarily submitted to the Jews and Persians, however after a few months the governor appointed by Khosrau II to rule Jerusalem was killed in a Christian revolt.[4]: 206–207, 195[35]
Various dates for the revolt have been given: 9 April or 19 May 614,[4]: 207 and 25 June 615.[35] Sebeos writes that during the revolt many Jews were killed. Some throwing themselves off the city walls to escape. The remaining Jews fled to the Sasanian general. Different names are given for this general: Khoream, Erazmiozan[4]: 69 and Xorheam[35] However they are all thought to refer to Shahrbaraz, who was known to Armenian sources as Khoream.[36] Shahrbaraz’s campaigns are well documented by other sources helping to put time constraints on the siege. Shahrbaraz assembled his troops and went and encamped around Jerusalem and besieged it for 19 days. The walls were breached by undermining the foundations. The Christian death toll of 17,000 was later corrupted to 57,000 in T'ovma Artsruni work History of the House of the Artsrunik'.[4]: 207 35,000 people including the patriarch Zacharias were deported to Mesopotamia. For three days the Persian forces slaughtered and plundered the inhabitants of the city. The city was burnt down. The Jews were then driven from the city and an archpriest named Modestos was appointed over the city.[4]: 69–71[35]
Antiochus' account[edit]
Antiochus Strategos was a 7th-century Byzantine Greek monk living in Palestine. Again dates for the start of the siege vary. Dates given are April 13 614, April 15 614, May 3 614 or May 5 614. On the twenty day[4]: 207 or according to the Georgian text the twenty-first day[4]: 69 the walls were breached. Ballistae were used to bring down the walls.[3] According to Antiochus, shortly after the Persian army entered Jerusalem, an "unprecedented looting and sacrilege" took place. In his words "church after church was burned down alongside the innumerable Christian artifacts, which were stolen or damaged by the ensuing arson".[3] Antiochus Strategos further claimed that captive Christians were gathered near Mamilla reservoir and the Jews offered to help them escape death if they "become Jews and deny Christ". The Christian captives refused, and the Jews in anger purchased the Christians from the Persians and massacred them on the spot. Antiochus wrote:[3]
Then the Jews... as of old they bought the Lord from the Jews with silver, so they purchased Christians out of the reservoir; for they gave the Persians silver, and they bought a Christian and slew him like a sheep.
Some versions of Antiochus’ manuscript record a total Christian death tolls as high as 66,509.[3][4]: 207 Other copies report approximately half this number.[17] The greatest number were found at Mamilla 24,518 corpses; many more than were found anywhere else in the city.[3] Other copies of Strategos's manuscripts report fewer corpses were found at Mamilla, 4,518 or 4,618 corpses.[2] Antiochus' work was originally written in Greek. Only Arabic and Georgian translations survive.[4]: 207
Dionysius' account[edit]
Dionysius of Tel Mahre’s account was written much later in the 9th century. It gives a body count of 90,000. This number is thought to be dubious.[4]: 195, 207
Theophanes' account[edit]
Theophanes the Confessor another 9th century author records that “some say it was 90,000” in reference to the number of Christians killed.[37]
Sefer Zerubbabel[edit]
The Sefer Zerubbabel is a medieval Hebrew apocalypse written in the style of biblical visions (e.g. Daniel, Ezekiel) placed into the mouth of Zerubbabel. It is thought to have been written at least partially during the beginning of the 7th century.[38]
In the Sefer Zerubbabel Aaron's rod, Elijah and Nehemiah ben Hushiel will be hidden in the city of Tiberias. After Nehemiah ben Hushiel takes' possession of Jerusalem he proceeds to sorts out Israel’s genealogical lists according to their families. He is killed in the fifth year which would be 619 during the month of Av (July - August). The Sefer Zerubbabel states that Kavadh II will stab Nehemiah ben Hushiel and Israel. His thoroughly crushed corpse will be thrown down before the gates of Jerusalem. And sixteen of the righteous shall be killed with him. Armilus enters Jerusalem on the 14th day of the new year during the month of Nisan. Assuming the year is 628. This would coincide to March 28 628.[18][6]
Kavadh II made peace with Heraclius in 628 after the reign of Khosrau II. Armilus is thought to be a cryptogram for Heraclius.[39]
Poems by Eleazar ben Killir[edit]
Three piyyut attributed to Eleazar ben Killir are thought to be based on an early version of the Sefer Zerubbabel.[19]:168-169
The first is believed to be dated between 629 and 634. In the text the Jews set up an altar and offer sacrifices however they are not allowed to erect a sanctuary. The Jewish leader who is called the Messiah ben Joseph arises among them and within three months reaches the top. However he is killed by the Persian chief commander in a small sanctuary shortly after.[40][19]:168-169
In a second piyyut which is un-datable the Messiah ben Joseph is named as Nehemiah ben Hushiel.[19]:170-171
A third piyyut titled Oto ha-yom is dated later as the Persians have been defeated by the Byzantines. However a king from Arabia then invades. This poem is thought to data from the early years of the Arab invasion. Nehemiah ben Hushiel is not mentioned. The Messiah ben David of the Sefer Zerubbabel Menahem ben Ammiel is now called the Messiah ben Joseph.[19]:171
Quran[edit]
The fall of Palaestina Prima to the Persians was mentioned as a contemporary event in the thirtieth sūrah of the Qur'an, Sūrat al-Rūm. It went on to predict the imminent defeat of the Persians by the Byzantines: "The Roman Empire has been defeated in a lowest land on earth by, but after this defeat of theirs they will soon be victorious, within a few years" (Qur'an 30:2-4).
Other sources[edit]
Historians have been able to piece together the events following the fall of Jerusalem based on other sources as well. A brief abridged list of the many relevant documents is given below.
Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari and the Khuzistan Chronicle both report that the search for fragments of the true cross involved torturing clergymen.[4]: 207 The Opusculum de Persica captivitate is a document attributed to Modestos. It gives a death toll of 65,000. This number may give an idea of the total Christian population in and around Jerusalem.[17] The Chronicon Paschale is notable because it does not accuse the Jews of Anti-Christian violence or sedition during the fall of Jerusalem in 614.[8]: 790 It is loosely dated to June 614. Another important document is Modestos' Letter.[4]: 207–210
Archaeological evidence[edit]
Despite the claims of large scale destruction, the archaeological evidence do not reveal layers of destruction associated with the Persian conquest.[2] There was also no hard evidence found for the widespread destruction of churches.[2]
A significant number of burial sites were allocated according to Strategius. A mass burial grave at Mamilla cave was discovered in 1989 by Israeli archeologist Ronny Reich. Near the site where Strategius recorded the massacre took place. The human remains were in poor condition containing a minimum of 526 individuals.[41] Other mass burial sites have also been found although they cannot be accurately dated to the Persian conquest of Jerusalem.[2] Yet, excavations of Jerusalem show a continuous habitation in Jerusalem neighborhoods and essentially little impact of population during the period of Persian governorship. As stated by archaeologist Gideon Avni:
... all excavated sites in Jerusalem show a clear pattern of continuity, with no evidence for destruction by the Persian conquest of 614 or the Arab conquest of 636.[2]
Demographic continuity might have resulted from population exchange by the victorious Jewish rebels, but apparently also the Christian habitation remained relatively constant, despite the disturbance by the Persian conquest, and no significant impact on the population of Jerusalem was made during the following period of Sassanid-Jewish dominance.[2]
In 2013, a treasure was found in the Old City of Jerusalem by archaeologists, containing a large stash of Persian coins from the 5th to early 7th centuries and a golden medallion.[42] According to Hebrew University archaeologist Dr. Eilat Mazar, the contents of the discovery in early September 2013 were two bundles containing thirty-six gold coins, gold and silver jewelry, and a gold medallion, ten centimeters in diameter, adorned with images of a menorah, a shofar and a Torah scroll. The item is thought to have been a decoration to hang around a Torah scroll as a breast plate.[42] The find was discovered in a ruined Byzantine public structure a mere 50 meters from the Temple Mount’s southern wall.[42] The way the items were found suggests one bundle was carefully hidden underground, whereas the second was apparently abandoned in haste and scattered across the floor.[42] Given dating, Dr. Mazar suggested the items were abandoned following the Christian re-establishment of control of the city.[42] Since there was only a small Jewish presence in Jerusalem during the Byzantine period, Mazar thinks the treasure was brought to the city by Jewish emissaries after the Persian conquest in 614 CE.[42]
