CriticalThought
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Fundamentals of modern aerial warfare
With the progression of technology, aerial warfare has transformed into a highly complex discipline. For the layman, it can be extremely confusing, trying to make sense out of a convoluted mixture of over-hyped marketing gimmickery and technical jargon. The messaging on aerial warfare is being propagated by mass media in a backdrop of hugely asymmetric air campaigns. The lessons learnt from these do not necessarily apply to a combat between two well trained, well armed airforces. Here, we return to the basics, and take a look at what is needed to win a modern aerial war between equally potent airforces. In the process, we cut through the prevalent jargon and hyperbole. Hopefully, after absorbing this article, the reader will be in a much better position to analyze modern air warfare, and the modern fighter jets involved.
In its full generality, aerial warfare encompasses all offensive and defensive operations in air-to-air, air-to-surface, and surface-to-air scenarios. By defintion, it includes air strikes against ground targets that don't necessarily have means to defend themselves from aerial threats. Here, we limit ourselves to solely those aspects that pertain to targeting aircrafts, be it from the air or surface, and protecting own aircraft in the face of similar attacks.
At its core, targeting an aircraft requires pinpointing its location, achieving a position of advantage, and neutralizing it by shooting appropriate ammunition. Conversely, protecting own aircraft requires thwarting the enemy's attempts at these tasks. As we will find later, the key difference between World War 1 style air warfare and its much evolved, modern version, is how technology and creativity is used to redefine, reinterpret, and reinvent each of these steps.
In World War 1, pinpointing the location of adversaries required eyeballing the skies. In modern warfare, an integrated suite of sensors is used for this purpose by attacking aircraft. Defenders try to thwart this attempt. One the one hand, this gives us technologies such as stealth, and on the other hand it leads to multi-sensor fusion of information in the likes of F-35 and Rafale.
Stealth technology is based the properties of electromagnetic waves as they interact with the contours and surface materials of an aircraft. By using results from EM theory, one can predict how incoming radar waves will reflect upon striking aircraft surfaces. This allows designers to change the aircraft's geometry and enables them to control the reflected waves, such that they cannot be received by the Radar receiver.
In addition to geometry, different materials interact differently with EM radiation. Advanced U.S. stealth technology is based on materials that absorb EM radiation instead of reflecting it. But nothing is for free. According to the Law of Conservation of Energy, energy can neither be created, nor destroyed. Hence, absorbing the EM energy leads to a rise in temperature, which increases the plane's infra-red signature. Thermodynamics is used to hide this IR signature.
The engine is another major source of IR radiation. For a stealth jet, the engine is reimagined from the grounds up, such that heat is dissipated in a manner that doesn't create an increased IR signature.
Then, there are noise signatures which also need to be suppressed. Sonic booms can reveal the presence of an accelerating jet.
Contrails are ice crystals that form as pressure drops across various aircraft surfaces. The leave a visible trail behind the aircraft. Advanced WVR missiles can utilize this knowledge to track the aircraft. Hence, the outer surfaces of the aircraft need to be designed to minimize pressure drops.
Prima facie, stealth sounds like an alien technology that provides absolute air superiority. Indeed, mass media has played an important role in creating a mystique around stealth in the eyes of the public. But let's remember the recent words of a Russian general, who says there isn't such a thing as a completely stealthy jet. And he is certainly right! The stealth properties noted above have different behaviors as the frequency of the incoming EM radiation changes. Although research in meta-materials is ongoing that 'bend' EM energy around an object, thus creating a cloaking effect, as of today, no jet is completely stealthy.
Multi-sensor fusion takes inputs acrosss the entire EM range, audio, and video, and creates a coherent picture of the environment. By looking at these signals originating from the same source, modern software can determine if they originate from an aircraft. Thus, even stealthy aircraft can be 'seen'.
For the aggressor, sensors simply provide one more opportunity to deceive the adversary. If the aggressor gains knowledge of the algorithms used for multi-sensor fusion, he can supply false signals that make it look like an aircraft is present, where none is actually present.
Network Centric Warfare adds another layer of complexity. The multi-sensor information can be shared between multiple aircraft, and thus 'ghosts' created by malicious signals can be eliminated. But this network capability is based on known communication mechanims such as wideband, line of sight, etc. The aggressor can use widely known methods to disrupt the enemy's network centric capabilities, or feed false information.
Quantum communication provides a guarantee against false information received from a peer. But, Denial of Service attacks are still possible which disrupt a quantum communication system.
But in all of this, if the EM energy must be generated by the aircraft itself, then the aircraft's capabilities shall be energy constrained. This constrain is determined by how much power can be suppplied by the engine. With all other factors held constant, the aircraft with an engine that boasts higher power output would win.
The above discussion reveals a repetitive pattern of measures, counter-measures, counter-counter measures, and so on. This pattern of attack and defence is replicated for all steps to counter aerial threats, as we discussed at the beginning.
Historially, adopting an advantageous position for attacking involved 'energy management'. Weapons systems of that time were limited, and placed a constraint on the pilot to maneuver the aircraft within a very thin sliver relative to the aft of enemy aircraft in order to make an effective kill. The standard procedure in case enemy got on your six was to bank hard. This gave rise to 'turning fights' where the aircraft's turn rate determined its success in evasive and attacking maneuvers. The underlying physics involved maintaining potential energy during the turn, or coming at the adversary from a relative height, thus quickly converting potential energy into kinetic energy and gaining the upper hand in combat.
With the advent of advanced WVR missiles with technologies such as High Off-Bore Sight (HOBS) the thin sliver at the six has widened to an angle of more than 90 degrees. Coupled with Helmet Mounted Display and Sight (HMD/S), the pilot can look in the direction of enemy direction and fire a HOBS missile to achieve a kill. Modern WVR missiles also feature hypersonic velocities, thrust vectoring which allows the missile to change directions very quickly, and advanced sensors that are not readily deceived by chaff and flares. These factors reduce the necessity for a 'high turn rate' figher in modern aerial warfare to achieve air superiority. It also means if the target aircraft is close enough, a kill will be made with very high probability.
But WVRs are necessarily limited by fuel. At a certain distance, determined by the combination of aircraft and missile, an aircraft can evade modern WVR missiles by doing high angle turns and climbs, thus forcing the missile to lose energy quickly. These WVRs cannot maintain their hypersonic velocities for a long amount of time. Which makes agility, high turn rate, and climb rate relevant in modern combat.
The design of stealth fighters is incompatible with the desing of classical 'high turn rate' fighters. Thus, a design compromise needs to be achieved. Stealth fighters give up some aspect of high turn rate, but compensate by using advanced Beyond Visual Range (BVR) weapons that can score effective kills from a great distance. Note that BVR was present in some form even before stealth technology. But its use is essential on a stealth jet.
BVR technology relies on two-way communication to guide the missile to the general area of enemy aircraft, and uses a terminal seeker head to guide the missile towards its final destination. For the defender, the communication link is an obvious target. The BVR has limited energy, which means its seeker can be effective for a limited time only and cannot utilize the same amount of power that is available to the aircraft. This is mitigated by enabling the seeker closer to the target. The Radar Warning Receiver on the target can alert the pilot to the incoming threat, and a jamming signal can be sent. The BVR can lock on to the jamming signal. To thwart this, the target aircraft can deploy Digital Radio Frequency Memory (DRFM) decoys that fool the BVR into regarding it as the actual aircraft.
Missile Approach Warning System (MAWS) can detect incoming missiles from the visual contrail generated by the missile. They can warn the pilot against both WVR and BVR missiles.
It should be readily obvious to the reader, that modern warfare has many variables. With such a wide range of capabilities on offer, air forces need to make a judicious choice to spend money on acquisition, training, logistics, and weapons. Also, each air force needs to define its perceived threat level, actual threat capabilities of the enemy, and make sure its aircraft are equipped to meet those challenges. But most importantly, they need to ensure their fighter pilots are trained in the right strategies based on the threat level and enemy capabilities.
@gambit @Oscar @Windjammer @JamD @fatman17 @Horus
With the progression of technology, aerial warfare has transformed into a highly complex discipline. For the layman, it can be extremely confusing, trying to make sense out of a convoluted mixture of over-hyped marketing gimmickery and technical jargon. The messaging on aerial warfare is being propagated by mass media in a backdrop of hugely asymmetric air campaigns. The lessons learnt from these do not necessarily apply to a combat between two well trained, well armed airforces. Here, we return to the basics, and take a look at what is needed to win a modern aerial war between equally potent airforces. In the process, we cut through the prevalent jargon and hyperbole. Hopefully, after absorbing this article, the reader will be in a much better position to analyze modern air warfare, and the modern fighter jets involved.
In its full generality, aerial warfare encompasses all offensive and defensive operations in air-to-air, air-to-surface, and surface-to-air scenarios. By defintion, it includes air strikes against ground targets that don't necessarily have means to defend themselves from aerial threats. Here, we limit ourselves to solely those aspects that pertain to targeting aircrafts, be it from the air or surface, and protecting own aircraft in the face of similar attacks.
At its core, targeting an aircraft requires pinpointing its location, achieving a position of advantage, and neutralizing it by shooting appropriate ammunition. Conversely, protecting own aircraft requires thwarting the enemy's attempts at these tasks. As we will find later, the key difference between World War 1 style air warfare and its much evolved, modern version, is how technology and creativity is used to redefine, reinterpret, and reinvent each of these steps.
In World War 1, pinpointing the location of adversaries required eyeballing the skies. In modern warfare, an integrated suite of sensors is used for this purpose by attacking aircraft. Defenders try to thwart this attempt. One the one hand, this gives us technologies such as stealth, and on the other hand it leads to multi-sensor fusion of information in the likes of F-35 and Rafale.
Stealth technology is based the properties of electromagnetic waves as they interact with the contours and surface materials of an aircraft. By using results from EM theory, one can predict how incoming radar waves will reflect upon striking aircraft surfaces. This allows designers to change the aircraft's geometry and enables them to control the reflected waves, such that they cannot be received by the Radar receiver.
In addition to geometry, different materials interact differently with EM radiation. Advanced U.S. stealth technology is based on materials that absorb EM radiation instead of reflecting it. But nothing is for free. According to the Law of Conservation of Energy, energy can neither be created, nor destroyed. Hence, absorbing the EM energy leads to a rise in temperature, which increases the plane's infra-red signature. Thermodynamics is used to hide this IR signature.
The engine is another major source of IR radiation. For a stealth jet, the engine is reimagined from the grounds up, such that heat is dissipated in a manner that doesn't create an increased IR signature.
Then, there are noise signatures which also need to be suppressed. Sonic booms can reveal the presence of an accelerating jet.
Contrails are ice crystals that form as pressure drops across various aircraft surfaces. The leave a visible trail behind the aircraft. Advanced WVR missiles can utilize this knowledge to track the aircraft. Hence, the outer surfaces of the aircraft need to be designed to minimize pressure drops.
Prima facie, stealth sounds like an alien technology that provides absolute air superiority. Indeed, mass media has played an important role in creating a mystique around stealth in the eyes of the public. But let's remember the recent words of a Russian general, who says there isn't such a thing as a completely stealthy jet. And he is certainly right! The stealth properties noted above have different behaviors as the frequency of the incoming EM radiation changes. Although research in meta-materials is ongoing that 'bend' EM energy around an object, thus creating a cloaking effect, as of today, no jet is completely stealthy.
Multi-sensor fusion takes inputs acrosss the entire EM range, audio, and video, and creates a coherent picture of the environment. By looking at these signals originating from the same source, modern software can determine if they originate from an aircraft. Thus, even stealthy aircraft can be 'seen'.
For the aggressor, sensors simply provide one more opportunity to deceive the adversary. If the aggressor gains knowledge of the algorithms used for multi-sensor fusion, he can supply false signals that make it look like an aircraft is present, where none is actually present.
Network Centric Warfare adds another layer of complexity. The multi-sensor information can be shared between multiple aircraft, and thus 'ghosts' created by malicious signals can be eliminated. But this network capability is based on known communication mechanims such as wideband, line of sight, etc. The aggressor can use widely known methods to disrupt the enemy's network centric capabilities, or feed false information.
Quantum communication provides a guarantee against false information received from a peer. But, Denial of Service attacks are still possible which disrupt a quantum communication system.
But in all of this, if the EM energy must be generated by the aircraft itself, then the aircraft's capabilities shall be energy constrained. This constrain is determined by how much power can be suppplied by the engine. With all other factors held constant, the aircraft with an engine that boasts higher power output would win.
The above discussion reveals a repetitive pattern of measures, counter-measures, counter-counter measures, and so on. This pattern of attack and defence is replicated for all steps to counter aerial threats, as we discussed at the beginning.
Historially, adopting an advantageous position for attacking involved 'energy management'. Weapons systems of that time were limited, and placed a constraint on the pilot to maneuver the aircraft within a very thin sliver relative to the aft of enemy aircraft in order to make an effective kill. The standard procedure in case enemy got on your six was to bank hard. This gave rise to 'turning fights' where the aircraft's turn rate determined its success in evasive and attacking maneuvers. The underlying physics involved maintaining potential energy during the turn, or coming at the adversary from a relative height, thus quickly converting potential energy into kinetic energy and gaining the upper hand in combat.
With the advent of advanced WVR missiles with technologies such as High Off-Bore Sight (HOBS) the thin sliver at the six has widened to an angle of more than 90 degrees. Coupled with Helmet Mounted Display and Sight (HMD/S), the pilot can look in the direction of enemy direction and fire a HOBS missile to achieve a kill. Modern WVR missiles also feature hypersonic velocities, thrust vectoring which allows the missile to change directions very quickly, and advanced sensors that are not readily deceived by chaff and flares. These factors reduce the necessity for a 'high turn rate' figher in modern aerial warfare to achieve air superiority. It also means if the target aircraft is close enough, a kill will be made with very high probability.
But WVRs are necessarily limited by fuel. At a certain distance, determined by the combination of aircraft and missile, an aircraft can evade modern WVR missiles by doing high angle turns and climbs, thus forcing the missile to lose energy quickly. These WVRs cannot maintain their hypersonic velocities for a long amount of time. Which makes agility, high turn rate, and climb rate relevant in modern combat.
The design of stealth fighters is incompatible with the desing of classical 'high turn rate' fighters. Thus, a design compromise needs to be achieved. Stealth fighters give up some aspect of high turn rate, but compensate by using advanced Beyond Visual Range (BVR) weapons that can score effective kills from a great distance. Note that BVR was present in some form even before stealth technology. But its use is essential on a stealth jet.
BVR technology relies on two-way communication to guide the missile to the general area of enemy aircraft, and uses a terminal seeker head to guide the missile towards its final destination. For the defender, the communication link is an obvious target. The BVR has limited energy, which means its seeker can be effective for a limited time only and cannot utilize the same amount of power that is available to the aircraft. This is mitigated by enabling the seeker closer to the target. The Radar Warning Receiver on the target can alert the pilot to the incoming threat, and a jamming signal can be sent. The BVR can lock on to the jamming signal. To thwart this, the target aircraft can deploy Digital Radio Frequency Memory (DRFM) decoys that fool the BVR into regarding it as the actual aircraft.
Missile Approach Warning System (MAWS) can detect incoming missiles from the visual contrail generated by the missile. They can warn the pilot against both WVR and BVR missiles.
It should be readily obvious to the reader, that modern warfare has many variables. With such a wide range of capabilities on offer, air forces need to make a judicious choice to spend money on acquisition, training, logistics, and weapons. Also, each air force needs to define its perceived threat level, actual threat capabilities of the enemy, and make sure its aircraft are equipped to meet those challenges. But most importantly, they need to ensure their fighter pilots are trained in the right strategies based on the threat level and enemy capabilities.
@gambit @Oscar @Windjammer @JamD @fatman17 @Horus
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